IGY IN RETROSPECT—ROBERTS 279 
altogether cover less than half the earth’s surface, and in tying these 
observations together to reveal patterns unsuspected by the ground 
observer. Better storm warnings and longer-range forecasts will 
result. 
Many leading meteorologists believe that man’s growing knowledge 
of atmospheric physics, and the acquisition of tremendous energy re- 
sources, will one day give him the power to control the weather. It is 
unnecessary to suggest the consequences for both peaceful pursuits and 
war activities. When it does happen, we can reflect that the IGY 
played a major role in producing such revolutionary changes in the 
human environment. 
Oceanography.—The seas, last geographical frontier on earth, pre- 
vent easy access to some 71 percent of the surface of the globe. They 
have borne the ships of the world since the dawn of history. Alexan- 
der the Great went down in a diving bell, yet man has but recently be- 
gun to explore them on a large scale. Now suddenly they are placed 
in a bright new limelight. Oceanic waters exchange water and energy 
with the atmosphere, producing major effects upon the weather and 
climatic cycles of the earth. We are told that they could provide 
more organic food materials than all the land areas of earth put to- 
gether; on the other hand, they are perhaps a menacing frontier 
threatening submarine-launched missiles against our cities. All at 
once we have a need to learn everything about this well-nigh limit- 
less environment, and to survey it forthwith. It is already trite to 
repeat that we know less of the ocean floor than of the visible surface 
of the moon. Thus the IGY embraced oceanography without re- 
straint and it is just the beginning—a committee of the National 
Academy of Sciences has recommended an American oceanographic 
research program estimated to cost the Nation two-thirds of a billion 
dollars within the next 10 years. 
As in the case of the atmosphere, the circulation within this great 
body of fluids had to be investigated, for tremendous thermal, chemi- 
cal, and kinetic energy is involved. Indeed, ocean-water circulation 
may well be a clue to many mysteries of the weather. 
The ocean is a complex layered structure with mighty rivers on 
diverse and mostly unknown courses, and with areas of turbulence and 
upwelling. Exploration of the circulation patterns requires ships and 
many instruments, including current meters, and some help is given 
by the evidence of radioactive tracers. Three major countercurrents 
have been investigated. One lies 9,000 feet below the Gulf Stream, 
traveling south at some 8 miles a day. Long known to exist, it took 
the IGY to provide definition of its characteristics. The Cromwell 
Current of the Pacific was discovered as late as 1952. Occupying 
a broad band south of the Equator, it flows east 200 to 1,000 feet 
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