392 ECONOMIC FORESTRY. 
Other important species are the ‘‘cedar” (Pinus Cembra,L.), form- 
ing large forests in Perm and Volgoda, the aspen, the hornbeam 
(Carpinus Betulus), distinguished as “ white beech” from Vagus 
sylvatica, the “red beech,” and forming whole forests near Kieff 
and Poltava, the alder (Alnus incana), and the European larch 
(Larix ewropea) in Poland. Of the total timber output for 1880 
from Government forests, of over 2,900,000 cubic fathoms, spruce 
constituted 37°5 per cent., pine 27°8, soft woods (birch, lime, aspen, 
etc.) 19:5, and hard woods (oak, beech, ete.) 8°8 per cent. Walnut 
and boxwood form articles of export. Plantations have been made 
along several railways to protect them from snowdrifts, and Pinus 
Pinaster has been used, with smaller plants, on the sand-plains at 
Aleschki, on the Dnieper. 
RouMANIA. 
Stated by Dr Cleghorn to contain two million acres of forest 
land, Roumania produces oak, walnut, beech, yew, silver fir, and 
spruce. Quercus Cerris, L., the Turkey oak, is very characteristic 
of the Balkan peninsula, as is also the horse-chestnut and the 
Macedonian Pinus Peuce. 
FRANCE. 
Though having forests in almost every Department, covering in 
all about one-seventh of her area, France imports large quantities 
of common woods, as well as the more valuable exotic kinds. 
The principal timber trees of France are oaks, “ chénes,” of 
which Quercus Robur, L.; Q. apennina, Lam. ; Q. lanuginosa, Th. ; 
Q. Toza, Bosc. ; Q. Cerris, L. ; Q. Pseudo-suber, Sant. ; Q. Ilex, L. ; 
Q. Suber, L.; Q. occidentalis, Gay; Q. coccifera, L.; and Q. 
pseudo-coceifera, Dsf., are indigenous. Q. Suber and Q. occidentalis 
are considerably cultivated in the south and in Corsica. The latter 
does not ripen its acorns until the second year. Cork is stripped from 
Q. Suber after twelve or fifteen years’ growth, and then at intervals of 
from seven to ten years; but the two first gatherings are useless for 
“corks.” Beech (“hétre”), ash (‘‘fréne”), elm (“ orme”), sycamore 
(“fauxplatane”), and other maples (‘ erables”), birch (“bouleau”), 
walnut (“noyer ”), and the Lombardy poplar (Populus JSastigiata), 
are important deciduous trees ; the silver fir and spruce (“sapin 
rouge ”) are abundant in the Vosges and Jura mountains ; and Pinus 
halepensis, Mill., the Aleppo pine, and P. Pinaster, Soland. ap. 
