PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 97 



other hand much that has been mapped as forest has been 

 so completely cut over that no merchantable timber re- 

 mains, nor are the trees suitable for fuel sufficiently numer- 

 ous to pay for the labor of cutting and hauling. The major 

 portion of the wooded area is, however, in various stages 

 culled forest (Figs. 3 and 4). The remaining stand often 

 consists principally of small white and black oak with 

 beech, maple and other less important species along the 

 ravines. Where cutting has been done and gi*azing is not 

 too hea\w such pioneer forms as the sumachs, sassafras and 

 persimmon are reestablishing a forest of inferior compo- 

 sition. 



The general history of timber cutting has been, according 

 to the testimony of those connected with the lumber trade 

 for the past 30 or 40 years, that the tulip was cut first and 

 that its cutting was most active during a decade extending 

 from 1880 to 1890. This was quickly followed by a period 

 during which the more valuable oak was cut, particularly 

 the white oak. As soon as the larger oak was cut the smaller 

 was utilized for railroad ties, and this cutting for ties has 

 continued to the present, receiving a fresh impetus during 

 the past few years during which beech has also been ac- 

 cepted for tie timber. Throughout this period there has 

 been the usual cutting for posts and for fuel in addition to 

 that for lumber. 



The topography and the forests have exercised a marked 

 influence upon the character of the population. The set- 

 tlers are almost exclusively whites of mixed American 

 stock. Upon the larger valleys along the line of the 

 railroads the farms are moderate in size and the 

 housing and living conditions show the moderate 

 thrift of the small farmer (Fig. 5). On the contrary 

 along the smaller streams like the branches of Sandy 

 Creek, Dongola Hollow, Happy Hollow, etc., the farms are 

 very- small and relatively unproductive, while the houses and 

 living conditions are decidedly primitive (Figs. 6 and 7). 



Considerable portions of the wooded uplands are in hold- 

 ings of 200 to 800 acres. These are usually but lightly 

 grazed, the principal object of the owners being to hold 



