530 PROCEEDKGS OF SECTION' Gl. 



social types have taken place in the past, and on no other plan can it 

 proceed further. To realise the absolute truth of this proposition 

 one has but to imagine a society in which benefits were proportional 

 to inefficiency. In such case inferior would naturally survive superior, 

 and have a greater number of children of similar uniitness. A 

 gradual retrogression would result, until the society, becoming less 

 and less adjusted to the conditions under which the lives of its mem- 

 bers must be carried on, would be exposed to universal suffering, 

 ending in extinction. 



The admitted object of every action of the State being general 

 happiness, it follows that the State must abstain from any action 

 which disturbs the relation between efficiency and reward. It must 

 neither increase the reward of the more capable at the expense of the 

 less capable, nor must it increase the reward of the latter at the 

 expense of the former — i.e., it must not confer special privileges on 

 any individual. General rights and equal opportunities for all citi- 

 zens, regardless of their capacity or fitness, therefore must be the 

 foremost object to which every action of the State should be directed. 



And, further, as adaptation to the social state and the highest 

 state of happiness depends for its evolution upon the exercise by all 

 individuals of all their functions, it follows that the State shall not 

 limit their freedoin by more than is necessary to secure the mainten- 

 ance of equal rights and opportunities. The greatest measure of 

 general happiness thus arises from the fullest freedom compatible 

 with equality of rights and opportunities — i.e., from "the freedom of 

 each to do as he wills, provided he encroaches not upon the equal 

 freedom of all others." 



These considerations show not only that there are ethical prin- 

 ciples limiting the activity of the State, but also define the ethical 

 line of demarcation, separating State action from individual action. 

 The State not only may but must perform all those acts which 

 establish and maintain equality of rights and opportunities for all 

 its citizens, and cannot beneficially aft'ect the community by any act 

 not necessitated by this object. 



If these considerations are applied to the conduct of modem 

 States, it will be seen at once that the State not only assumes numer- 

 ous functions which lie outside the limits of its legitimate activities, 

 but leaves unfulfilled many other functions which fall within this limit. 

 Nothing need be said here as to the former, but a short exposition 

 of the principal functions neglected by the modern State may be 

 justified on account of their transcendent importance. 



The first object of man, as of any organism, is to maintain his 

 life. But the maintenance of life depends upon the use of the earth. 

 In modern societies this use of the earth assumes many and varied 

 aspects. The farmer uses its fertihty; the miner, its mineral 

 treasures; merchants, bankers, manufacturers, and professional men 

 use its products; and all these, as well as every other man, must 

 u.se the earth as dwellers thei-eon. To all men, therefore, the use 

 of the earth is the basis of their existence, the indispensable oppor- 

 tunity for the maintenance of their lives. It follows that equal 

 right to the use of the earth is the indispensable condition for 



