NORTH AMERICAN GEOTRUPESTAE — ^HOWDEN 301 



cussed by Blair (1934, p. 89), Frisch (1736, pp. 13-15), Korschefsky 

 (1940, p. 45), Lebedeva (1906, p. 436), Ferris (1876, p. 361), Sano 

 (1915-1916, pp. 25-28), Schi0dte (1874, pp. 227-376), and Schjelderup- 

 Ebbe (1925, pp. 97-98). Kolbe (1929, p. 187) summarized the habits 

 of the European subgenera of Geoirupes and treated briefly of several 

 of the species. Ohaus (1909, pp. 105-111) discussed the habits of 

 Oeoirupes stercorarius, vernalis, sylvaticus, and (T.) typhoeus, while 

 in the following year Spaney (1910, pp. 625-634) not only gave an 

 excellent biological account of the same species but pictured the anal 

 lobes of the larvae and the pupae of all the above species. Fabre 

 (1918, Mattos translation, pp. 189, 234) gave, in his usual vivid and 

 slightly fanciful style, a detailed discussion of the life history of 

 Geotrupes stercorarius (believed by Main (1917) to be in actuality 

 Geotrupes spiniger). 



As the biologies of the European Geotrupes appear to be quite simi- 

 lar in the discussions of the works just mentioned, no attempt is 

 made to give a detailed review of their life histories. Essentially all 

 of the species fit into the following pattern. A burrow is made from 

 2 to 12 inches deep beneath cow or horse dung, often in the woods 

 in a somewhat shaded spot. On numerous occasions the beetles have 

 been noted working in pairs with the male bringing the dung to the 

 female in the burrow. The female, in a side branch of the vertical 

 burrow, makes a compact wad of dung 2 or 3 inches long and the 

 width of the burrow. Near the terminal end she leaves a small 

 cavity, sometimes lined with a thin coating of clay. Usually four 

 to six food cells for the larvae are made branching off the main 

 burrow, but the total number of burrows and food cells that a single 

 female may construct is apparently unknown. Main (1917, pp. 18-22) 

 did mention that the female does not need the assistance of the male 

 as she is perfectly capable of doing all of the work. 



After oviposition, the egg, which is large, oval, slightly mder at 

 one end, and yellowish-white, swells to almost twice its regular size 

 before hatching. Several hours after eclosion the larva starts feeding, 

 and it increases rapidly in size until the third instar. The develop- 

 mental time for each instar of the various European species has not 

 been sufficiently studied to enable any generalized statements to be 

 made. The larva, upon attaining maximum size or upon consuming 

 all available food, remains quiescent for a period, coats the walls of 

 its cell with a thick layer of its own feces, and then pupates. Two 

 or three weeks after pupation ecdysis occurs, and after a few days 

 the adult leaves the cell. 



Any mention of the time of oviposition, hibernation, or emergence 

 of the adults has been avoided until now, as it is there that the dif- 

 ferences have been noted between the species. Main (1917, pp. 18-22) 



