﻿FAR 
  EASTERN 
  CIVILIZATIONS 
  — 
  BISHOP 
  489 
  

  

  periodically 
  assigned 
  to 
  them, 
  on 
  which, 
  however, 
  they 
  had 
  to 
  pay 
  

   tithes. 
  They 
  had 
  also 
  to 
  perform 
  other 
  work, 
  such 
  as 
  ditching 
  and 
  

   draining 
  ; 
  and 
  they 
  had 
  likewise 
  to 
  follow 
  their 
  lords 
  in 
  the 
  frequent 
  

   wars, 
  both 
  public 
  and 
  private. 
  

  

  The 
  serfs 
  on 
  an 
  estate 
  were 
  supervised 
  by 
  a 
  land 
  steward 
  or 
  bailiff 
  

   appointed 
  by 
  the 
  lord, 
  and 
  who 
  among 
  other 
  duties 
  exercised 
  control 
  

   over 
  peasant 
  marriages. 
  

  

  At 
  the 
  bottom 
  of 
  the 
  social 
  scale, 
  in 
  Chou 
  times 
  as 
  later, 
  was 
  a 
  not 
  very 
  

   large 
  class 
  of 
  slaves, 
  recruited 
  partly 
  from 
  criminals 
  and 
  captives 
  of 
  

   war. 
  These 
  were 
  not 
  attached 
  to 
  the 
  soil, 
  like 
  the 
  serfs, 
  but 
  were 
  

   bought 
  and 
  sold 
  in 
  the 
  market 
  place 
  with 
  domestic 
  animals. 
  

  

  Economic 
  development. 
  — 
  During 
  much 
  of 
  the 
  Chou 
  period 
  trade 
  was 
  

   by 
  barter, 
  and 
  taxes 
  and 
  tribute 
  were 
  levied 
  in 
  kind. 
  Cowry 
  shells 
  were, 
  

   however, 
  highly 
  prized, 
  both 
  for 
  their 
  scarcity 
  value 
  and 
  because 
  of 
  

   their 
  religious 
  and 
  magical 
  associations 
  (which 
  seem 
  to 
  have 
  existed 
  

   in 
  many 
  other 
  lands 
  also). 
  The 
  only 
  basis 
  of 
  wealth, 
  however, 
  was 
  

   land 
  — 
  arable, 
  pasture, 
  forests, 
  salt 
  marshes, 
  and 
  mines 
  — 
  which 
  could 
  

   only 
  be 
  held, 
  whether 
  in 
  absolute 
  ownership 
  or 
  as 
  fiefs, 
  by 
  clans 
  of 
  

   nobles. 
  Plebeians 
  were 
  thus 
  barred 
  from 
  obtaining 
  wealth 
  and 
  

   consequent 
  power. 
  

  

  Later, 
  however, 
  there 
  occurred 
  a 
  gradual 
  but 
  great 
  economic 
  evolu- 
  

   tion. 
  No 
  coined 
  money 
  yet 
  existed 
  ; 
  but 
  there 
  came 
  to 
  be 
  used 
  in 
  its 
  

   place 
  as 
  units 
  of 
  exchange 
  rolls 
  of 
  silk 
  and 
  fixed 
  quantities 
  of 
  grain. 
  

   We 
  have 
  no 
  evidence 
  that 
  oxen 
  or 
  sheep 
  were 
  ever 
  so 
  used 
  in 
  ancient 
  

   China, 
  as 
  they 
  were 
  in 
  the 
  west. 
  

  

  Trade 
  and 
  transportation. 
  — 
  Trade, 
  both 
  domestic 
  and 
  foreign 
  (i. 
  e., 
  

   mainly 
  with 
  the 
  Yangtze 
  Valley, 
  not 
  then 
  regarded 
  as 
  a 
  part 
  of 
  China) 
  

   was 
  active, 
  and 
  was 
  partly 
  in 
  the 
  form 
  of 
  state 
  enterprises 
  and 
  partly 
  

   in 
  the 
  hands 
  of 
  traders, 
  who 
  had 
  however 
  to 
  pay 
  heavy 
  imposts. 
  

  

  No 
  understanding 
  of 
  the 
  true 
  function 
  of 
  trade, 
  as 
  a 
  form 
  of 
  wealth 
  

   production, 
  seems 
  ever 
  to 
  have 
  arisen 
  in 
  ancient 
  China, 
  where 
  the 
  

   nobles 
  despised 
  it 
  and 
  regarded 
  traders 
  with 
  contempt. 
  Hence 
  com- 
  

   merce 
  was 
  tolerated 
  merely, 
  not 
  actively 
  encouraged. 
  There 
  are 
  some 
  

   indications 
  however 
  that 
  it 
  was 
  more 
  highly 
  esteemed 
  in 
  the 
  great 
  

   Yangtze 
  Valley 
  states, 
  and 
  that 
  they 
  knew 
  better 
  how 
  to 
  make 
  it 
  con- 
  

   tribute 
  to 
  building 
  up 
  their 
  strength 
  than 
  did 
  those 
  of 
  the 
  more 
  purely 
  

   Chinese 
  north. 
  

  

  This 
  earlier 
  dependence 
  on 
  a 
  natural 
  economy 
  and 
  especially 
  on 
  

   taxes 
  levied 
  in 
  grain 
  rendered 
  transportation 
  of 
  revenue 
  from 
  distant 
  

   districts 
  to 
  the 
  royal 
  capital 
  a 
  difficult 
  matter, 
  and 
  added 
  greatly 
  

   to 
  the 
  decentralization 
  characteristic 
  of 
  the 
  time. 
  

  

  But 
  around 
  the 
  middle 
  of 
  the 
  Chou 
  period 
  the 
  idea 
  arose 
  of 
  cast- 
  

   ing 
  — 
  not 
  striking 
  — 
  metallic 
  token 
  money, 
  or 
  in 
  other 
  words 
  a 
  coinage. 
  

  

  