﻿FAR 
  EASTERN 
  CIVILIZATIONS 
  — 
  BISHOP 
  495 
  

  

  capitation, 
  and 
  mutilation 
  of 
  various 
  kinds. 
  In 
  addition 
  to 
  the 
  regu- 
  

   lations 
  imposed 
  on 
  them 
  by 
  their 
  lords, 
  the 
  peasantry 
  also 
  observed 
  

   the 
  ancient 
  local 
  customs 
  of 
  each 
  region; 
  but 
  just 
  what 
  these 
  were, 
  

   we 
  have 
  only 
  incidental 
  knowledge. 
  

  

  Warfare. 
  — 
  The 
  Chou 
  period, 
  like 
  that 
  of 
  Bronze 
  Age 
  civilizations 
  

   everywhere, 
  was 
  one 
  of 
  constant 
  war. 
  With 
  the 
  weakening 
  of 
  the 
  

   royal 
  power, 
  especially 
  after 
  the 
  Chou 
  kings 
  were 
  driven 
  eastward 
  

   just 
  after 
  770 
  B. 
  C, 
  the 
  more 
  powerful 
  feudal 
  states 
  began 
  a 
  process 
  

   of 
  absorption 
  of 
  their 
  weaker 
  neighbors 
  and 
  of 
  the 
  neighboring 
  non- 
  

   Chinese 
  peoples 
  which 
  led 
  finally 
  to 
  only 
  seven 
  great 
  kingdoms 
  being 
  

   left. 
  

  

  In 
  theory, 
  wars 
  were 
  undertaken 
  to 
  punish 
  and 
  coerce 
  those, 
  whether 
  

   Chinese 
  or 
  "barbarian," 
  who 
  refused 
  to 
  acknowledge 
  obedience 
  to 
  the 
  

   Son 
  of 
  Heaven 
  ; 
  but 
  in 
  reality 
  they 
  were 
  waged 
  for 
  purposes 
  of 
  ag- 
  

   grandizement. 
  The 
  third 
  quarter 
  roughly 
  of 
  the 
  first 
  millennium 
  

   B. 
  C. 
  came, 
  in 
  fact, 
  to 
  be 
  known 
  as 
  the 
  Age 
  of 
  the 
  Contending 
  States 
  

   (Latourette, 
  1934, 
  vol. 
  1, 
  pp. 
  251-256). 
  

  

  Figure 
  13. 
  — 
  Ancient 
  Chinese 
  snaffle 
  bits 
  of 
  bronze. 
  

  

  The 
  feudal 
  lords 
  also 
  carried 
  on 
  private 
  wars 
  with 
  their 
  neighbors, 
  

   even 
  of 
  the 
  same 
  state. 
  Rulers, 
  however, 
  constantly 
  tried 
  to 
  put 
  down 
  

   this 
  practice, 
  productive 
  as 
  it 
  was 
  of 
  so 
  much 
  disorder 
  and 
  misery. 
  

  

  There 
  has 
  been 
  at 
  no 
  time 
  in 
  Chinese 
  history 
  a 
  special 
  military 
  class, 
  

   comparable, 
  for 
  instance 
  with 
  the 
  Japanese 
  samurai. 
  All 
  Chinese 
  

   nobles, 
  however, 
  were 
  supposed 
  to 
  be 
  warriors. 
  The 
  title 
  of 
  a 
  minister 
  

   of 
  war, 
  Ssu-ma, 
  meant 
  Master 
  of 
  the 
  Horse, 
  and 
  reflected 
  the 
  great 
  

   importance 
  of 
  the 
  horse 
  in 
  war. 
  

  

  Armies 
  were 
  composed 
  of 
  two 
  main 
  classes 
  of 
  troops, 
  chariotry 
  and 
  

   foot. 
  The 
  former, 
  composed 
  of 
  nobles, 
  was 
  called 
  shih, 
  while 
  the 
  latter, 
  

   a 
  rabble 
  of 
  levies 
  of 
  peasant-serfs, 
  was 
  called 
  lu. 
  Hence 
  an 
  armed 
  force 
  

   as 
  a 
  whole 
  was 
  known 
  as 
  a 
  shih-lii. 
  In 
  theory 
  each 
  feudal 
  lord's 
  chariot 
  

   was 
  accompanied 
  by 
  from 
  75 
  to 
  100 
  of 
  his 
  peasants, 
  on 
  foot, 
  but 
  in 
  

   reality 
  the 
  proportion 
  of 
  foot 
  soldiers 
  attached 
  to 
  each 
  chariot 
  rarely 
  

   exceeded 
  50. 
  Cavalry 
  did 
  not 
  form 
  an 
  element 
  in 
  Chinese 
  armies 
  

   until 
  near 
  the 
  close 
  of 
  the 
  Chou 
  period, 
  and 
  chariots 
  continued 
  to 
  be 
  

   the 
  main 
  arm 
  until 
  about 
  the 
  third 
  century 
  B. 
  C., 
  after 
  which 
  they 
  

   ceased 
  to 
  be 
  mentioned 
  as 
  being 
  employed 
  in 
  war. 
  (For 
  ancient 
  Chinese 
  

   Bronze 
  Age 
  bits, 
  see 
  fig. 
  13.) 
  

  

  