508 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. 



It will not be amiss to glance first at the results of the discussion 

 and researches of scholars during the last three years. First of all, 

 as to the age and origin of steelmaking, the most important stage 

 in the history of the working of iron — it is unfortunate that nobody 

 has attempted to solve this difficult problem. And, indeed, our 

 sources here fail us completely, for the process of making and working 

 fine steel was guarded by the ancients as a most profound secret 

 known only to members of the same sect. The evil repute in which 

 ironworkers were held by some peoples — apparently also by the 

 earliest of the Israelites — must certainly in not a small measure be 

 connected with the superstition of their neighbors, who ascribed 

 skill in the making of fine steel weapons to the aid of evil spirits and 

 demons. And it is self-evident that the masters of this art, the pros- 

 perous sword-cutlers of the time, would not themselves divulge, much 

 less write, upon the secrets of their trade. On the contrary, it was 

 in their interest to foster popular belief in the supernatural origin of 

 their workmanship, and thus to put a stop to all inquiry as to the 

 real methods of their trade. The steel makers and workers were 

 therefore looked upon either as artists by the grace of God, or as 

 malignant sorcerers and wizards, and were treated accordingly. In 

 either case the result was the same, the methods of steelworkers re- 

 mained the secret of the sect and was under no condition betrayed. 

 We can thus understand why such a learned man as Pliny could offer 

 no definite data on the history of the steel industry, although he was 

 well acquainted with the makers of fine steel. 



The oldest written direct information now known on the employ- 

 ment and working of steel is the Biblical passage in I Samuel xiii, 

 19-22. 



Now there was no smith found throughout all the land of Israel: for the Philistines 

 said, Lest the Hebrews make them swords or spears: But all the Israelites went down 

 to the Philistines, to sharpen every man his share, and his coulter, and his axe, and his 

 mattock. Yet they had a file for the mattocks, and for the coulters, and for the forks, 

 and for the axes, and to sharpen the goads. So it came to pass in the day of battle, 

 that there was neither sword nor spear found in the hand of any of the people that were 

 with Saul and Jonathan: but with Saul and Jonathan his son was there found. 



The implements mentioned above, according to my conception, can 

 not possibly mean anything other than those of steel. And so also 

 very probably in the following Biblical passages in Joshua xvii, 

 16 and 18, by "chariots of iron" we should understand "chariots of 

 steel:" 



And the children of Joseph said, The hill is not enough for us: and all the Canaanites 

 that dwell in the land of the valley have chariots of iron, both they who are of Beth- 

 shean and her towns, and they who are of the valley of Jezreel. 



But the mountain shall be thine; for it is a wood, and thou shalt cut it down: and the 

 outgoings of it shall be thine; for thou shalt drive out the Canaanites, though they have 

 iron chariots, and though they be strong. 



