10 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS. 



First winter and summer. Male and ferruile. — Like adult but 

 tail, wings, and wing-coverts much browner, gloss becoming 

 almost entirely worn off by first autumn. Tiie juvenile body- 

 plumage and some lesser and median coverts are moulted in 

 autumn but not rest of wings or tail. 



Measurements and structure. — ^ wing 400-436 mm., tail 

 215-250, tarsus 64-73, bill from nostril 44-52, from skull 72-80, 

 depth at angle of lower mandibles 25-28, at base 28-32 (10 

 measured). $ wing 395-420. Primaries : 1st between 7th and 

 8th, sometimes shorter than 8th, 4th longest, 3rd sometimes equal 

 but usually 3-12 mm. shorter, 2nd 15-40 shorter, 6th 40-65 

 shorter ; 2nd to 5tli emarginated outer webs. Secondaries between 

 8th and 10th primaries, tips slightly rounded. Tail rounded. 

 Bill massive, culmen curved. Numerous and strong rictal and 

 nasal bristles, latter completely covering nostrils. 



Soft parts. — Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris dark-brown. 



Characters and allied forms. — C . c. varius (Faeroes) has longer 

 wing and whiter feather-bases, C. c. Jiispanus (Spain) heavier, 

 deeper bill, C. c. sardus (Sardinia) has a deeper bill and shorter 

 wing, C. c canariensis (Canaries) and C. c. tingitanus (north- 

 west Africa) have short, deep bills, C. c. umbrinus (Sahara, 

 Arabia, east Persia) has a thinner bill and is partty brownish, 

 C. c. laurencei (Palestine, north-west India to Greece) is intermediate 

 between last and typical form ; other forms differ in size of bill 

 and wing. Large size and heavy bill distinguish Raven specifically. 



Field-characters. — ^At close quarters large size distinguishes it 

 from any other crow. Lanceolate feathers of throat give old 

 bird a bearded appearance. In flight, massive bill and head 

 project far in advance of wings, and suggest longer-necked bird 

 than a crow. Note, a frequently-uttered deep " pruk, pruk," 

 infallible guide to identity. 



Breeding-habits. — Formerly widely distributed, breeding in tall 

 trees all over the country, now practically confined to moun- 

 tainous districts and sea-cliffs, and nesting almost entirely on 

 ledges of rocks. Nest. — Solidly built of sticks, heather-stalks, 

 rarely seaweed, mixed with earth, lined warmly hair and wool, 

 sometimes a little grass. Eggs. — 4-6, sometimes only 3 or even 

 fewer, and rarely 7 ; ground-colour light blue to greenish, generally 

 freely blotched and spotted brown or blackish and ashy-grey 

 shell-marks. Occasionally markings very scanty, sometimes (but 

 rarely) absent. Erythristic variety once recorded. Average size 

 of 79 eggs, 49.8 X 33.5mm. Breeding-season. — February and 

 first half March. Incubation. — ^Lasts 19-21 days ; in confinement 

 performed by female only (St. Quintin), though others state that 

 male takes part. Fledging-period. — ^About 5 weeks. One brood. 



Food. — Very varied, including carrion of all kinds, occasionally 



