178 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BmDS. 



tarsus 20-21.5, bill from skull 13.5-15, hind claw 7.5-9, consider- 

 ably curved and equal to or shorter than hind toe (12 measured). 

 $ wing 80-87. Primaries : 1st minute, about half primary- 

 coverts, 2nd to 4th about equal (greatest difference 1 mm.) and 

 longest, 5th 2.5-5 mm. shorter, 6th 11-14 shorter ; 3rd to 5th 

 emarginated outer webs. Secondaries between 7th and 10th 

 primaries, tips fairly square, longest iimer secondary generally 

 equal to 5th primary but m summer plumage often as long as 

 longest primary. Tail shghtly forked. Bill rather fine with base 

 wider and flatter. A few fine short rictal bristles. Nostrils 

 uncovered. 



Soft parts. — Bill, upper and tip of lower mandible dark brown, 

 rest of lower pale flesh ; legs and feet pale brovraish-flesh (pinker 

 than Meadow-Pipit) ; iris black-brown. 



Characters and allied forms. — A. t. hodgsoni {maculatus Jerd. 

 1864 of authors, but not of Vieillot 1818) (Siberia, Japan to India 

 and China) and A. t. berezowskii (Kansu) are generally much greener 

 and more uniform on upper-parts and have wider and blacker 

 streaks on under-parts, A. t. haringtoni (Kashmir) has wider, 

 coarser bill and wider streaks on under-parts than typical form, 

 A. t. yunnanensis (south-west China) has shorter bill. For specific 

 distinctions see pp. 180-1. 



Field-characters. — Pipits differ from Larks in their more 

 slender build, graceful carriage, and restless Wagtail-hke activity, 

 but resemble one another very closely in appearance, voice and 

 demeanour. Very like Meadow-Pipit, but rather larger, tail 

 longer, upper-parts warmer brown, spots on breast larger but fewer, 

 and legs flesh-coloured. Inhabits wooded districts. Song some- 

 times uttered from tree-tops, but usually on wing as bird ascends 

 perpendicularly from perch and then planes downwards with 

 outspread wings and upturned and outspread tail ; notes during 

 descent " see-ar, see-ar, see-ar," are characteristic. Call-note 

 a hoarse " tsee." Alarm-note, metalHc " chip." 



Breeding-habits. — Breeds in depression of ground on sides of 

 railway cuttings, country lanes, hillsides, rough pastures and 

 outskirts of woods, and haunts fertile, well-wooded districts. 

 Nest. — Substantially built of dry grasses and bents, with moss 

 in foundation, fined finer grasses and varying amount of hair. 

 Eggs. — UsuaUy 4 to 6, rarely 7 or even 8 ; extraordinarily variable. 

 Three main types are reddish, brown, or grey in general appear- 

 ance, but in each type eggs may be uniformly speckled, with 

 weU-defined zone or cap, or with blotches and streaks. Finely 

 spotted eggs also have frequently a black hair- streak. Ground- 

 colour varies from pale blue to pinkish, greenish, brownish or 

 grey. Scarce varieties show few or no markings on blue ground. 

 Average of 174 eggs, 20.09 x 15.1 mm. Breeding-season. — 



