THE ROCK-PIFIT. 189 



and less olivaceous, chin and throat speckled blackish, sides of 

 throat rather darker than adult, and streaks of breast rather darker 

 and narrower. 



First winter. — Like adult, but often more yellowish on under- 

 parts, but this is not always so. The juvenile body-plumage, lesser 

 wing-coverts and usually median and some greater wing-coverts 

 and some innermost secondaries are moulted in Aug. -Sept.. but not 

 rest of wings or tail. First summer. — Like adult and moult appar- 

 ently the same. 



Measurements and structure. — (^ wing 89-94 mm., tail 63-68, 

 tarsus 23-24, bill from skull 14-16 (12 measured). $ wing 80-90. 

 Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 3rd and 4th longest, 2nd and 

 5th sometimes as long, often 1-2 mm. shorter, 6th 9-12 shorter; 

 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries between 7th 

 and 8th primaries, tips square slightly notched, longest inner 

 secondary between 5th and 6th primaries. Tail slightly forked. 

 Bill rather fine with base wider and flatter. A few fine, short 

 rictal bristles. Nostrils uncovered. Hind claw curved and about 

 length of hind toe. 



Soft 'parts. — Bill brown-black, with base of under mandible 

 yellowish-flesh (winter), all brown-black (summer) ; legs and feet 

 flesh-brown ; iris black-brown. 



Characters and allied forms. — The Water-Pipits differ from the 

 Rock-Pipits in having pale portions of outer tail-feathers white 

 instead of smoky- white, for other differences see under A. s. 

 spinoletta and rubesc^ns, for differences of ^. s. littoralis see under 

 that form, A. s. kleinschmidti (Fseroes) has darker upper-parts 

 and more streaked under-parts. 



Field-characters. — Pre-eminently a bird of rocky coasts, but in 

 winter also frequents mud-banks and estuaries. Very like Meadow- 

 Pipit but larger and darker, and white on outer tail-feathers 

 replaced by smoky-grey, a character that distinguishes it from 

 Water-Pipit and all others. Song, call and alarm-notes similar 

 to those of Meadow-Pipit. 



Breeding-habits. — Nests in hole or recess of some kind in cliff, 

 often sheltered by vegetation, less often in grassy banks, burrows 

 in soil or thick growth of maritime plants, but always close to the 

 sea-shore, though sometimes at considerable height. Nest. — ■ 

 Usually built of dead grasses and bents, lined finer bents and horse- 

 hair ; sometimes sea-wrack and moss utilized. Eggs. — 4-5, in some 

 cases 6, with greyish-white ground, thickly covered fine olive-brown 

 and ashy-grey spots, sometimes with cap or zone at big end. 

 Erythristic varieties also occur. Average size of 100 eggs, 21.3 x 

 15.9 mm. Breeding-season. — From latter half April to early May, 

 and again in June. Two broods. Incubation. — About a fortnight ; 

 probably by hen only. FI edging-period. — 15 days. 



