242 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS. 



patch above brown tip) ; lores and behind eye black ; cheeks and 

 ear-coverts white ; sides of neck extending on to sides of hind- 

 neck brownish-white ; chin and centre of throat blaclc, each feather 

 tipped white ; breast and belly dull white tinged brownish -buff ; 

 flanlis and under tail-coverts pale brownish-buff ; axillaries 

 and under wing-coverts white tinged brownish-buff ; tail-feathers 

 black-brown, outer Avebs edged olive-brown with a very narrow 

 whitish outer line on outer pair ; primaries and secondaries 

 black-brown, narrowly edged broA\ai as mantle on outer webs, and 

 white on inner webs ; innermost secondaries pale brown ; primary- 

 cc verts dark brown edged paler ; greater, median and lesser wing- 

 coverts brown. This plumage is acquired by complete moult in 

 July-Sept. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion has little effect, but 

 some white tips wearing off feathers of throat makes this rather 

 more black, browii of upper-parts becomes rather darker and less 

 warm in tint. 



Nestling. — Down brownish-grey, short and scanty. Distribu- 

 tion inner supra-orbital, occipital, humeral and spinal. Mouth, 

 inside broA\aiish-yellow, no tongue-spots ; externally flanges pale 

 yellow. 



Juvenile. — Like adult but whole crown dull sooty-black 

 rest of upper-parts tinged greyish not so warm bro\\ii as adult 

 black of chin and throat more broAvnish ; breast and belly whiter 

 flanks and under tail coverts paler with only a huffish tinge. 



First winter. — Like adult. The juvenile body-plumage, greater, 

 median and lesser wing-coverts are moulted in Aug. -Sept., but not 

 ]3rimary-coverts, wing- or tail-feathers. 



Measurements and structure. — ^ wing 59-65 mm., tail 49-54 

 (outer tail-feather 2-4 (rarely 5) mm. shorter than longest), tarsus 

 15.5-17, bill from skull 9-10.5. $ wing 59-62. Primaries : 1st 

 8-11 mm. longer than primary-coverts, 2nd equal to (or between) 

 9th or 10th, 4th and 5th longest, 6th sometimes as long, sometimes 

 1 shorter, 3rd and 7th 2-4 shorter ; 3rd to 7th emarginatcd outer 

 webs. Secondaries equal 10th primary, tips rounded with some- 

 what pointed apex. Tail slightly forked, inner web of each feather 

 being sloped off at tijD. Bill strong, good many rictal and nasal 

 bristles, short bristle-like feathers covering nostrils.. Tarsal joint 

 feathered. 



Soft parts. — Bill black ; legs and feet blue-grey ; iris dark 

 brown. 



Characters and allied forms. — All forms are very close and 

 require careful comparison. P. 2^- palustris (Scandinavia, east 

 Prussia) is larger and brown of upper-parts is considerably greyer 

 in tint, P. p. stagnatilis (south-east Europe) is much like last but 

 not quite so grey, P. j>- communis (Germany, Austria) is of a more 

 buffish-brown, P. p)- longirostris (France, Belgium, Holland) is more 

 olive and not so rusty as P. p. dresseri. P. p. italicus (Italy) is of a 



