258 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BEITISH BIRDS. 



white, next (penultimate) pair with white tip, next with small buff 

 tip ; primaries and secondaries, greater and median wing-coverts 

 as adult but edgings not nearly- so bright (1st primary much larger) ; 

 primary-coverts brown-black without white edgings ; lesser coverts 

 very pale buff slightly marked blackish. 



First ivinter and summer. Male and female. — Apparently like 

 adults. The juvenile plumage is completely (including wing- and 

 tail-feathers) moulted in autumn. 



Measurements and structure. — ^ wing 57-62 mm., tail 72-84, 

 tarsus 20-22, bill from skull 8-9 (12 measured). $ wing 55-61, tail 

 75-79. Primaries : 1st in adults minute only visible from below, 

 in juvenile plumage nnich broader and longer, being 5-6.5 mm. 

 longer than longest primary-covert, 2nd equal to 7tli or between 

 7th and 8th, only very occasionally longer than 7th or shorter than 

 8th, 3rd to 5th longest, 6th 1-3 mm. shorter ; 3rd to 6th emargi- 

 nated outer webs. Secondaries rather shorter than 10th primary, 

 tips rounded. Tail graduated, central pair longest, next three 

 pairs becoming shorter in steps of about 5 mm., 5th pair from centre 

 (penultimate) about 10 mm. shorter than 4th, outermost pair about 

 20 mm. shorter than penultimate and 40-45 mm. shorter than 

 longest. Under tail-coverts nearly as long as outermost tail- 

 feathers. Tarsal joint -feathered. Bill fairly strong, culmen 

 curved, cutting edges of upper mandible slightly recessed. A few 

 rictal bristles. Bristle -like feathers almost concealing nostrils. 

 Body-plumage somewhat long and loose but less so than in JSgithalos. 



Soft 2^tt'>'l^- — Bill : male, deep straw-colour ; female, upper 

 mandible and base and cutting edges of lower mandible greenish- 

 horn, rest of under mandible yellow ; legs and feet black ; iris 

 pale buff. 



Characters and allied forms. — P. b. russicus (eastern Europe, 

 Asia) is considerably paler. The graduated tail, tawny colouring, 

 white edges to jDrimaries, as well as black moustache and under 

 tail-coverts in male, are distinctive specific characters. 



Field -characters. — Essentially a bird of reed-beds ; in form and 

 coloration alike unmistakable. Flight is direct and accomplished 

 at same level — just above tops of reeds. Call-note a ringing " ping, 

 ping." Alarm-note " ee-ar." 



Breeding-habits. — Generally nest is built among reeds or 

 aquatic vegetation in swampy ground, not far from the edge of 

 the bed, and low down. Nest. — Quite characteristic, built of dead 

 leaves of reed or sometimes sedges, warmljdined with flowering tops 

 of reeds and often a feather or two. Both sexes build, but lining 

 is added by male. Eggs. — 5 to 7, but sometimes 8 to 12 are found 

 in one nest, and it is not rare to find an egg buried in lining of nest. 

 Colour white with numerous fine streaks or scrawls and specks 

 of liver-brown. Average of 106 eggs, 17.2x13.9 mm. Breeding- 



