280 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. vol. 54. 



Hopi, thrown on their own resources, made a creditable showing in 

 the application of color to materials beginning with the most primi- 

 tive and advancing as follows: Staining with earth and mineral 

 colors; dye infusions of flowers, seeds, bark, etc., simple or in com- 

 bination, or combined with mineral colors; the discovery of fixing or 

 saturating material with color by boiling in infusions; and the dis- 

 covery, by chance perhaps, of a mordant through empirical experi- 

 mentation. Tools used in tanning have not been seen among the 

 collections from the Hopi, as these collections have all been gathered 

 in recent years since the game became scarce. From prehistoric sites 

 there have been recovered leatherworking tools, consisting of 

 breakers of deer tibia and pelvic bones and fleshers of femurs. Such 

 bones on account of their shape and availability were generally used 

 by the American tribes. The cutting of leather by primitive methods 

 presents some difficulty, and it would seem probable that among the 

 American Indians before the introduction of iron elaborate leather 

 work would be difficult and for costumes perhaps robes to a large 

 extent served the purpose of formed garments. Rawhide and tanned 

 skin can be cut with chips of chert, chalcedony, and obsidian, the 

 latter being very good for the purpose, but none of these stones are 

 as effective as iron. All leather cutting in prehistoric times was 

 done with chips or flakes of stone and no classified implement for the 

 purpose has been found. The chief tool in leatherworking is the bone 

 awl, whose point makes possible fine sewing as that with the needle. 

 Awls are found in profusion in the ancient sites, those for leather 

 sewing being characterized by a fine slender point. 



Another important use of tanned leather is for moccasins (see figs. 

 15, 16, 27). The method of making them is as follows : 



The outline of the foot is traced on the piece of rawhide, the thick 

 skin on the back of cattle being regarded as best. Outside of this 

 outline a margin of about half an inch is traced and marked, and 

 the sole cut out to this outline. The next step is to soak the sole, 

 form it up at the edges, and around the edge is cut a slit for the welt. 

 The welt is then bent up and the vamp which has been cut out is 

 sewed on with sinew by means of the bone awl. When the sewing 

 of the vamp is completed, the moccasin is turned inside out and the 

 heel portion sewed on, care in every case being taken to hide the 

 stitches, the resultant work being extremely neat. The heel leather 

 is cut with a flap which goes over the ankle and is buttoned as in 

 the Navaho moccasin, or tied with a buckskin thong. It will be 

 seen that as the sole is larger than the foot, the surplus rolls up over 

 the sides, giving an excellent protection for the foot against sharp 

 rocks, thorns, etc. Often, according to taste, the vamp and heel por- 

 tion are of different colored leather. 



