NOTES ON THE SHAD AND ALEWIFE. 455 



algiTB, as I have noticed a greenish substance in their stomachs; the 

 amount is doubtless small, as the stomachs are nearly always found 

 emi)ty. The only interference in spawning is caused by traps and nets 

 and unusual iioods of water which wash gravel over the spawn, thereby 

 destroying it. 



It is stated, and generally believed by fishermen and others, that shad 

 begin to breed when one 5 ear old, and are able to breed for one year 

 only ; this statement cannot, I believe, be considered as reliable, as Mr. 

 Milner has found in the ovaries of spent shad the undeveloped eggs of 

 succeeding seasons. During the spawning-season no well-marked 

 change of appearance has been noticed, except the larger belly of the 

 female, and a greater brilliancy of general coloration. The act of 

 spawning seriously afiects the shad in different ways; it produces 

 emaciation and weakness not only in the female, but male fish, 

 and deteriorates their flesh, rendering it flabby and tasteless ; these 

 results are due not only to the propagation act, but to the amount 

 of physical energy necessarily expended in reaching the head-waters 

 of rivers, their favorite spawning-grounds. In the act of spawn- 

 ing the males and females appear to run indiscriminately together, 

 although Mr. Lyman, of Massachusetts, has seen them at this time 

 paired, and it is but seldom the water is seen colored with the milt of 

 the male. The most favorable temperature for hatching is warm, the 

 eggs being laid near the surface of the water. The size of the individ- 

 ual egg is larger than that of the pseudo herring, and from 100,000 to 

 150,000 is the number estimated for each female. The eggs when 

 spawned sink to the bottom, and are not attached to stems or gravel 

 floating freely in the currents ; no nest of any kind being built by either 

 male or female, nor do they watch the eggs uutil hatched, which 

 event takes place late in the season, i^robably June or July. The time 

 required for hatching depends mainly on the temperature of the water, 

 from seventy hours to six days being required. Of the total number of 

 eggs laid, it is estimated by fishermen that probably one-tenth are 

 hatched ; this I believe to be a large estimate, and of the young reach- 

 ing maturity, not more than one-fifth survive. From evidence received, 

 it is believed a much smaller number are hatched, but a larger portion 

 reach maturity. 



The rate of growth is said to be about 4 or 5 inches per annum ; but 

 this statement has not been confirmed by personal observation. After 

 hatching, the young fish receive no care from either parent, and suffer 

 greatly from the attacks of other fish. In fact, there appears to be 

 no parental instinct whatever, as shad are known to have devoured 

 their own eggs. It is but seldom the young fish are seen after hatching, 

 or if seen, are not recognized in the waters near Beaufort, although ob- 

 served iu other streams. They appear to live on similar food to their 

 l)areuts. 



