624 



38 



community. For example, the United States and the United Kingdom 

 concluded an early agreement (Cockcrof t-Libby) for cooperation. 



One early example of experimental cooperation was the measurement 

 of the electron temperature in an early Soviet tokamak by a British 

 team. This measurement convinced the community that the tokamak 

 configuration used by the Soviets was successfully improving plasma 

 confinement. 



There are also numerous examples of useful collaboration between 

 the USSR and the United States in the area of magnetic mirror devices 

 such as the invention of the "minimum magnetic field" configuration 

 and the tandem mirror. These activities predated the 1973 

 Nixon-Brezhnev agreement on cooperation in nuclear energy and have 

 continued. The U.S. fusion community went to considerable effort in 

 1983 to document the technical value of the U.S. -USSR cooperation and 

 justify continuation of the agreement. 



Interactions between the United States and the EC have also been 

 extensive although quite informal in the sense of government-to- 

 government agreements. There are, however, numerous instances of 

 joint work and personnel exchanges, which were fruitful 

 scientifically, especially on toroidal confinement systems, among them 

 the stellarator and the reversed-f ield pinch. 



Significant interaction with the Japanese has been more formal, 

 with major activity following the agreement signed in 1979 on 

 cooperation in energy research. Under this umbrella agreement, 

 activity in joint planning, personnel exchanges, joint workshops, and 

 even joint operation of facilities has flourished. These activities 

 are discussed in detail in the following sections on present and 

 future cooperation. 



In fusion technology there has always been significant sharing of 

 experimental and diagnostic technologies. In more recent years where 

 specialized technologies such as neutral-beam heating of plasmas 

 developed, there ensued international collaborations very similar to 

 those on the scientific side. Typically the United States has been at 

 the forefront in most of these areas, an exception being the gyrotron 

 microwave source for electron cyclotron resonance heating, invented 

 and developed in the USSR but perfected and made widely available by 

 the U.S. program. 



Other than interaction at meetings and personnel exchanges, the 

 majority of technology collaborations has occurred under the auspices 

 of international agencies. The International Atomic Energy Agency 

 (IAEA) sponsors the International Tokamak Reactor (INTOR) study plus 

 numerous meetings, workshops, and the scientific journal, Nuclear 

 Fusion. The International Energy Agency (lEA) , which includes the EC, 

 the United States, and Japan but not the USSR, is the vehicle for the 

 Large Coil Task (Haubenreich, 1983), the TEXTOR work, and considerable 

 work in fusion materials. 



