675 



attractive areas of research and development. No compelling technical 

 reasons for international cooperation were established, in the sense 

 that competence missing in the United States might be joined with such 

 competence existing elsewhere to accomplish what otherwise could not 

 be done. Nevertheless, technology development takes longer than 

 expected and contributions can come from unexpected sources. Hence, 

 fusion hardware development should be internationally coordinated — a 

 step beyond past (successful) information and personnel exchange 

 programs. 



It was suggested that national programs might progress by 

 "half-steps," with successive (national) projects "leapfrogging" their 

 foreign predecessors. It was noted that this course is essentially 

 competitive rather than cooperative in that at any particular moment 

 one group will be "ahead." 



The following dilemma faces the advocates of specific cooperative 

 projects: on the one hand, the United States should establish its 

 objectives and requirements for an activity before deciding what to 

 offer for international participation; but, on the other hand, 

 potential international partners should be regarded as equals, with 

 full participation in setting cooperative program objectives as well 

 as scope. 



Because of the long lead time for major fusion facilities and the 

 commitment of resources to them well in advance, it may be hard to 

 influence the upcoming generation of large tokamaks. Thus it may 

 remain to focus joint planning on the generation after next. 



Examples of International Cooperation in Fusion 

 and Other Technologies 



A few specific examples of international cooperation in magnetic 

 fusion were described. One, FMIT, was under serious discussion at the 

 time of the workshop but is so far lacking agreement on joint 

 participation. Other projects, already carried out, have been 

 successful. Although these projects encountered difficulties and 

 delays similar to cooperative efforts in other fields, there was 

 general agreement that there were net benefits to the participating 

 partners. 



Successful international cooperation in other technologies were 

 also reported. Most of these efforts have been of rather specific 

 scope and purpose, and they include large projects as well as small 

 ones. In most examples, the partners contributed specified tasks and 

 hardware. Some examples, notably CERN, have succeeded when the 

 international partners contributed specified cash payments to the 

 international project. All speakers reported on difficulties and 

 delays in communication and agreement. An international project is 

 more difficult and time-consuming than a purely national effort — one 

 speaker guessed by a factor of two. 



Although there may be common themes in these prior examples there 

 is no formula that guarantees success. Nevertheless, we can improve 



