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22 SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL COOPERATION 



governmental or nongovernmental organization. Recently, the con- 

 trol issue has been exacerbated by the increasing politicization of 

 many intergovernmental organizations dealing with science and tech- 

 nology (e.g., UNESCO). The United States, like many other coun- 

 tries, has little desire to make large contributions for dues or for spe- 

 cial projects only to see the organization engage in activities or 

 rhetorical debates inimical to U.S. interests. 



The problems of dealing through intergovernmental organizations 

 raise yet another type of cost, the principle of "juste retour,"''' refer- 

 ring to the expectation that each participating nation will get a share 

 of the research, engineering, and equipment supply contracts in pro- 

 portion to its financial contribution. As a result, the efficiency of 

 sound management practices often must be sacrificed in favor of 

 greater equity of distribution. Euratom, ELDO, and INTELSAT all 

 have been affected to varying degrees by this problem. 



Finally, there are the inevitable internal bureaucratic costs of under- 

 taking cooperative projects. Unless such collaboration is kept very 

 narrowly focused, it tends almost inevitably to overlap agency juris- 

 dictions. In those cases where an agency's participation in a coopera- 

 tive venture requires that it transfer budgetary authority or personnel 

 to an international organization or to another agency of the U.S. gov- 

 ernment, the inherent tendency to guard bureaucratic "turf " may have 

 negative ramifications for the project. ^^ 



There are, of course, no universally applicable guidelines for suc- 

 cessful international S&T cooperation. Much depends on the specific 

 circumstances (and previous history) of the initiative and, frequently, 

 on the presence or absence of a few charismatic individuals who can 

 provide initial and continuing leadership. Some of the more signifi- 

 cant background conditions likely to increase the chances of success- 

 ful cooperation were set forth in a 1981 study by the OECD.^^ These 

 are summarized below. 



• Intergovernmental cooperation must be based upon an awareness 

 of the political context, and the further the program moves toward 

 applied research, the more precise the political implications must be. 



• It is important that there should be similarity between partners, 

 both in terms of scientific and technical development, and economic 

 development. 



• Aims of the joint action must be defined clearly at the outset. 



• A general preparatory mechanism for contact and discussion is 

 necessary to launch, define, and mount the joint effort. 



• A detailed cost-benefit analysis of various potential institutional 

 frameworks should be conducted. 



