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72 SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL COOPERATION 



cost savings and contributions from its cooperative programs over the 

 past 25 years. ^^ 



• "Improving the balance of trade through creating new markets for 

 U.S. aerospace products. "^^ 



Political 



• Creating a positive image of the United States; "the U.S. program 

 of cooperation in space reaches a scientific, technical, and official elite 

 in the struggle for minds. "^'* 



• Encouraging European unity; the U.S. space program "lends itself 

 admirably to cooperation with multilateral institutions in Europe. "^^ 



• Reinforcing the image of U.S. openness in contrast to the secrecy of 

 the Soviet space program; "when NASA was organized ... the 

 keystone of Government space policy was to give dramatic substance to 

 the claim of openness— and, at the same time, to seek credibility for the 

 nation's assertion that it entered space for peaceful, scientific purposes. 

 This was done . . . most importantly, by inviting foreign scientists to 

 participate extensively and substantively in space projects 

 themselves. "^^ 



• Using space technology as a tool of diplomacy to serve broader for- 

 eign policy objectives. 



While the priority given to these various objectives has varied over 

 time and mission opportunity, at the core has been a policy that per- 

 mitted this country's closest allies to become involved in the U.S. space 

 effort. Indeed, some have criticized NASA for making possible such 

 participation, at minimal cost, in an effort paid for almost entirely by 

 U.S. taxpayers; "benefit, know how and opportunity were shared to an 

 extent that was entirely unprecedented where an advanced technology 

 was involved, particularly one with such strong national security 

 implications."^'' 



EVOLUTION OF U.S. -EUROPEAN COOPERATION 

 IN SPACE SCIENCE 



During the "golden age" of the U.S. space program, from the begin- 

 ning of the Apollo buildup in 1961 through its peak in the 1965-1966 

 period, NASA's international activities grew rapidly along with the rest 

 of the agency's efforts. Before the first Apollo 11 moon landing in July 

 1969, nine European spacecraft had been launched by the United States, 

 and substantial momentum had built behind European involvement 

 with the United States in space experimentation. This momentum has 



