38 OCEAN SCIENCES AND NATIONAL SECURITY 



tional institutions, philanthropic foundations, and the masses of the people. * * * 

 The IGY is also a striking example of the feasibility and fruits of international 

 scientific cooperation. Moreover, a comparison of its work with the previous 

 unaided scientific efforts of individual nations indicates that such cooperation 

 is actually necessary to certain scientific achievements. 2° 



This global characteristic of oceanic research has been underscored 

 by the need for international cooperation on common problems. For 

 example — 



Artificially created radioactive materials have been introduced into the sea 

 by the testing of nuclear weapons, by the disposal of low level waste products 

 from the operations of nuclear reactors and by disposal of low level laboratory 

 waste. * * * The adoption of standards and regulations to prevent pollution 

 of the sea by radioactive materials is obviously an international problem. The 

 duty of nations to cooperate to this end has been spelled out in Article 25 of 

 the Convention on the High Seas adopted at Geneva in April 1958.21 



Many scientists believe that the oceans may be safely utilized for 

 limited and carefully monitored disposal of wastes, but unless there 

 is control over disposal by all nations, in the presence of subsurface 

 currents, dumping of radioactive materials far at sea may have 

 adverse and even dangerous effects on "downstream" neighbors. 



Yet another reason cited for international cooperation on common 

 problems is the concern with its living resources. 



These resources occur both on the high seas where they are common property 

 and in the coastal waters where there exist certain national property rights 

 and where some nations claim preferential rights of fishing to distances beyond 

 the limits of the traditional territorial sea. Since the fish populations pay no 

 heed to man-made geographical boundaries, the management of both the living 

 resources of the high seas and of coastal waters requires international collabo- 

 ration. The necessity for management of the sea fisheries arises because a 

 fish resource may be affected substantially by an intense fishery: indeed the 

 resource may be fished so intensively that the total harvest is less than that 

 which could be obtained by more moderate use. * * * The Convention on Fish- 

 ing and Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas adopted at 

 Geneva in 1958 is expected to come into force in the near future. It establishes 

 criteria and mandatory procedures for handling the scientific problem, and thus 

 lays a foundation for handling the political and economic problems. 22 



Still a third significant factor in the international aspects of oceanic 

 research concerns the utilization of scientific discovery as a step toward 

 preventing international disputes and even as a step toward disarma- 

 ment : 



Nations must find some way to live with the new threat of nuclear-powered 

 submarines armed with long range weapons. The transparency of the air allows 

 us to locate, identify, and track potentially hostile surface warships. The 

 opacity and vagaries of the sea make it much more difficult to detect and identify 

 submarines. In recognition of this, international law requires submarines to 

 navigate on the surface and show their flag when passing through the territorial 

 sea of another state. * * * Under present international law, a submerged sub- 

 marine outside territorial waters in peace time is not violating any law or amenity, 

 and is not subject to attack. Thus the probability will become steadily greater 

 in the future that an international mischief-maker will be able with impunity to 

 initiate a nuclear holocaust. It may then become necessary to make a change in 

 international law which would require a submerged submarine to surface and iden- 

 tify itself on demand or be subj 3ct to attack. For enforcement of such an inter- 

 national agreement a submarine surveillance system might be essential throughout 

 the high seas. The specifications for this system would necessarily be based on 

 international cooperative research much as fisheries treaties are now based on 

 the research of international commissions.^^ 



20 "The IQY and Space Research," op. cit., p. 36. 



21 "Oceanography 1960-70; International Cooperation," N'ASCO Report, Chapter 10, p. 3. 



22 NASCO Report, Chapter 10, op. cit., p. 3. 



" NASCO Report, Chapter 10, op. cit., pp. 4-5. 



