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people who stan new companies, join established firms, and enter crucial positions 

 in industry and government where their technical background enables better man- 

 agement decisions; and (7) research entails risks, so that some objectives are not 

 reached, but new ones — often more important ones — replace them. 



Practical applications are often impossible to predict from any one scientific 

 discovery that is nonetheless crucial to the ultimate outcome, and the best path to 

 the desired use must adjust continually to surprising sources of new knowledge. 

 Norman Ramsey's Nobel Prize-winning work in physics was seminal in the develop>- 

 ment of atomic clocks that enabled the global positioning system (see Box II.2), 

 magnetic resonance used for medical imaging, and synchrotron radiation used in the 

 manufacture of integrated circuit chips. Yet none of these immensely practical 

 benefits was evident when he did his research. He remarked upon receiving the 

 1994 Vannevar Bush Award,"! would have had difficulty in justifying most of my 

 research on the basis of future applications either I or anyone else would have 

 foreseen.'"' 



The government role in supporting the federal science and technology (FS&T) 

 base is crucial in almost all the technologies. In some cases and at some stages, it is 

 the dominant factor. The critical period for federal investment is often, but not 

 always, at the beginning. Federal support for basic science is often necessary, but 

 federal support for applied research and fundamental technology development is 

 also essential. Some new technologies do build logically on scientific discovery 

 arising from federally funded basic science, but private research and development 

 often turn up items that pose questions for science or require a period of govern- 

 ment-supported inquiry before they become appropriate for further development in 

 the private sector Federal support often comes from different agencies, at different 

 times, and for different reasons. 



Research and development, and the ensuing innovation system of which they 

 are essential components, depend not only on the basic science supported by the 

 National Science Foundation, but also on mission-oriented research and develop- 

 ment of the National Institutes of Health, Department of Defense, National Aeronau- 

 tics and Space Administration, Department of Energy, Environmental Protection 

 Agency, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Department of Commerce, and other 

 agencies and departments. 



The Distinction Between Basic and Applied Science Is Often Difficult to 

 Make and Is Rarely Decisive in Defining the Federal Role 



Historically, the federal government has provided funding for a variety of long- 

 term, high-risk research and technology development programs. In some cases this 

 support is motivated by the need to solve specific problems such as developing a 

 new aircraft, breaking a code, or finding a way to treat specific diseases. The result- 

 ing activity conventionally is described as applied research. In other cases, govern- 

 ment support is provided for pure science. Some projects are clearly applied. 

 Others are clearly basic. Basic research usually is supported in the expectation that 

 it ultimately will link to practical use; applied research usually is intended to address 

 a specific problem, although it can spawn new fundamental inquiry.* 



