80 



Parrots represent the largest monetary share of commerce. The United States accounted 

 for 47% of all parrots sold internationally, and perhaps 80% of the trade in Neotropical parrots, 

 followed by the European Economic Community and Japan (Thomsen and Mulliken 1992). 

 Approximately 1.8 million Neotropical psittacines, nearly all captured from the wild, were 

 legally exported for trade from 1982 to 1988 (Thomsen and Mulliken 199J0- The actual numbers 

 taken from the wild for commercial activities were probably several times as large, when internal 

 trade, illegal export (e.g., 150,(XX) parrots per year smuggled through Mexico; Thomsen and 

 Hemley 1987), and high mortality rates of birds harvested from the wild (e.g., 60% die before 

 exportation in Mexico; Ramos and liiigo 1985) are considered. These data led Thomsen and 

 Mulliken (1992) to estimate that the actual numbers of wild Neotropical psittacines harvested for 

 international trade between 1982 and 1988 may have been almost four million birds. The retail 

 monetary value of the 1.8 million parrots legally exported during this period has been estimated 

 at $1.6 billion (Thomsen and Brautigam 1991). 



This multi-million dollar trade increasingly threatens the existence of wild bird 

 populations and even entire species. Although nearly all exporting countries are members of the 

 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Flora and Fauna (CITES), and many exporting 

 countries have adopted trade regulations, the domestic and international laws which are supposed 

 to ensure that trapping for trade does not result in species declines have been largely ineffective 

 (Thomsen and Mulliken 1992). Together, trade and habitat destruction now clearly represent the 

 two major conservation problems afflicting these and many other kinds of birds worldwide. 



International trade threatens many groups of birds, but principal problems have been seen 

 with parrots, which as a group are unable to sustain much pressure on wild populations (Inskipp 

 et al. 1988). Collar and Juniper (1992) concluded that 42 of approximately 140 species of 

 Neotropical parrots are currently at risk of extinction. For 22 of these species, trade is a major 

 cause of endangerment. Examples of parrots now critically threatened by trade include the 

 Spix's Macaw (Cyanopsitta spixii), the Hyacinth Macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus), the 

 Tucuman Amazon {Amazona tucumana), and the Red-crowned Amazon (Amazona viridigenalis) 

 (Collar and Juniper 1992). 



Although parrots are most threatened by trade, other birds are also affected (Nilsson 

 1989). Among nonpsittacines threatened by trade are Toucan Barbels (Semnornis 

 ramphastinus). Red Siskins {Spinus cucullatus), Rothschild's Starlings (Leucopsar rothschildi). 

 Hill Mynahs {Gracula religiosa), Sumba Hombills (Rhyticeros everetti). White-necked 

 Picathartes (Picathartes gymnocephalus) . Yellow Cardinals (Gubernatrix cristata). Yellow- 

 faced Siskins {Carduelis yarrellii). Long-wattled Umbrellabirds (Cephalopterus penduliger), 

 Gumey's Pittas {Pitta gurneyi), Buffy-throated Seedeaters (Sporophila frontalis), Marsh 

 Seedeaters (5. palustris). Seven-colored Tanagers (Tangara fastuosa), and Laughing Thrushes 

 {Garrulax spp.). 



Little information is available on how trade is affecting most nonendangered species. 

 However, if the Blue-fronted Amazon (Amazona aestiva) is any indication, trade is probably 

 having a strong effect even on many common species. Over 45,000 Blue-fronted Amazons were 

 exported from Argentina between 1982 and 1986. It is virtually inconceivable that this species 

 can continue to sustain such harvest levels much longer, as evidenced by its disappearance from 

 many areas of its range (Beissinger and Bucher 1992). 



Trade is likely to be as threatening to most parrots as habitat destruction, because many 

 parrots are habitat generalists. This is exemplified by the large number of parrot species that 

 have been introduced, as a result of the pet trade, and have become established in urban habitats 

 around the world. In addition, the harvest of nestlings of hole-nesting species often involves 



