262 



LOGGING 



No limit to free haul, but it was not great in any case. 



MOVEMENT OF EARTH ^ 



The movement of earth for road construction, railroad grades 

 and trails may be performed in various ways among which the 

 following are in general use : 



(i) With pick and shovel, the earth being loosened by the 

 pick and then thrown directly out of the cut. 



(2) Loosening by pick or plow and transport on wheel- 

 barrows, two-wheeled dump carts or dump wagons. 



(3) Loosening by plow or by dynamite and transport on 

 drag scrapers, wheel scrapers or dump cars with horse draft. 



(4) Steam shovel lift and transport on dump cars or flat cars. 



The first three methods are employed by owners of compara- 

 tively simple and inexpensive outfits. Steam shovels are seldom 



1 Earth of various kinds increases in bulk when disturbed for removal, as shown 

 in the following table: 



Character of material. 



Increase i 

 bulk. 



Earth, freshly loosened 



Clean sand and gravel 



Loam, loamy sand and gravel 



Dense clay, dense mixtures of gravel and clay 

 Unusually dense gravel and clay banks 



Per cent. 

 14 to 50 

 14 to IS 

 20 

 33 to 50 



Shrinkage in volume of embankments is dependent on the method used to com- 

 pact them. Loose earth with rainfall as the only compacting element will be about 

 8 per cent above normal at the expiration of a year. Earth compacted with two- 

 wheeled carts or scrapers occupies from 5 to 10 per cent less space than it did "in 

 place" and will shrink slightly more during the next few years. 



