osteometry; the measurement of the bones 137 



ities are due to morphological causes; others to cultural ones. The 

 first considers the gradual shaping of an arboreal foot from a climbing, 

 prehensile organ, to a firm platform for walking upon the ground, changes 

 which are largely due to the shaping of the peroneal muscles for lifting 

 the outer edge, and in part also to the giving up by the first digit of the 

 most of its prehensile function, and the gaining of greater size and strength 

 for the application of force in a new direction. The second, or cultural, 

 changes, are the result in part of the introduction of new methods of 

 sitting, standing, and walking, and in part modified by the introduction 

 of various types of shoes and sandals. 



Aside from the study of the foot as a whole, several of the separate 

 bones deserve special treatment, especially the talus, which forms the 

 main articulation with the tibia, and is thus concerned in all general 

 acts, such as walking. Next in importance come calcaneus and navi- 

 cular, which have already been the subject of anthropometric research, 

 while the remaining bones have been studied mainly in relation to the 

 shape of the entire foot. These three specially named bones are here 

 treated in detail, after which the foot is considered as a whole. 



Talus 



Orientation. — The bone is to be first placed on a table, with the 

 trochlear surface uppermost, and with the navicular head towards the 

 observer. The bottom of the trochlear groove, which is almost a straight 

 line may be marked with a pencil, and gives approximately the location of 

 the sagittal axis (SS in Fig. 38). The transverse axis (TT) runs across 

 the middle of the trochlea, at right angles to the sagittal axis. As the 

 navicular head forms, with its neck, a distinct portion of the bone, the 

 collum tali, it may be considered to have its own axis, as drawn by i he 

 eye through the middle of this portion, beginning at the center of the 



Hasebe, K.; Ueber die Haufigkeit der Coalescenzen, etc., der Fussknochen der 

 Japaner. Zeitsckr. Morph. und Anthropol, Bd. XIV, 1912. 



For separate tarsal bones, cf . 



Reicher, M.; Beitrag zur Anthropologic des Calcaneus. Archiv. /. Anthropol, 

 N. F. Bd. XII, 1913, pp. 108-133. 



Sewell, Seymour; A study of the astragalus. Journ. Anat. and Physiol. (Engl.) 

 Apr., 1904; July, 1904; Oct., 1904; Jan., 1906. 



Manners-Smith; A study of the navicular in the human and anthropoid foot. 

 Journ. Anat. and Physiol. (Engl.), 1907. 



Manners-Smith; A study of the Cuboid and Os peroneum in the human foot. 

 Journ. Anat. and Physiol. (Engl.), 1907. 



For relations of foot bones in the same foot, cf . 



Pfitzner, W.; Beitragen zur Kenntniss des menschlichen Extremitaten skelets. 

 A series of papers in the Morphol. Arbeiten, especially, No. VII, Die Variationen im 

 Aufbau des Fuss-skelets, Bd. VI, 1896. This paper presents a summary of the details 

 obtained from more than a thousand human feet, personally prepared by the author 

 in order to prevent any possible confusion. Cf. also the work of this author, in the 

 same series, on the hand. 



Virchow, H.; Die Aufstellung des Fuss-skelet. Anat Am., Bd. VII, 1892. 



