236 A MANUAL OF FORESTRY. 



against cold winds. In the cultivation of blanks, arti- 

 ficial shelter belts must be grown some years beforehand, 

 on the side whence the cold winds blow. 



Beech suffers also from drought while young. Later 

 on it is more than any other species exposed to blistering 

 of the bark by the sun ; hence it is not well suited 

 for standards, apart from the heavy cover which the tree 

 gives. 



Storms, snow, and rime are only to a limited extent 

 hurtful in Beech woods. 



Cattle and game like to browse Beech ; red deer, hares, 

 rabbits and mice peel off the bark. Insects rarely do 

 much damage. The leaves are devoured by lepidopterous 

 larvae, especially those of DasycTiira pudibunda, and 

 Halias prasinana, and sometimes the polyphagous Liparis 

 manac/ia, as well as by the weevil Orchestes fagi. An 

 aphis, Chermes fagi, sometimes kills old trees. The 

 freshly-cut timber is liable to the attacks of Tomicidae, 

 and other boring beetles. 



Of fungi, Phytophthora omnivora destroys young seed- 

 lings ; where it appears in large quantities, seedlings 

 cannot be raised for 5 to 8 years, hence nurseries must 

 be changed, or used for other species. Nectria ditissima 

 causes cancer on the stem, which may, however, also be 

 the consequence of frost. The so-called green-rot is due 

 to Peziza ceruginosa. 



Pruning. Beech stands pruning better than most other 

 species, but it is rarely, if ever, done unless the shade 

 injures other more valuable timber trees. 



Thinnings are commenced at the age of 25 to 40 years 

 according to locality ; they should be at first moderate, 

 afterwards heavy. 



