FOREST-ROADS. 303 



or roads at different altitudes are connected by means of 

 slides, which are often necessary where the mountain-slopes 

 are steep. The subsidiary roads may be traced also along the 

 narrow side-valleys of the higher mountain-ridges, into which 

 the wood is brought from both sides. In such cases the roads 

 must wind round every intervening spur or rock in order to 

 communicate with the felling-areas. 



In the case of an extensive tract of woodland belonging to 

 one owner there is little difficulty in laying out a network of 

 roads, but where the properties are subdivided among several 

 owners, or where the forest surrounds other property, there 

 are often serious obstacles to be dealt with. Old roads which 

 one is loath to abandon are often sources of difficulty, it may 

 also be the outlets from the forest where difficulties arise, 

 when the fields beyond it that should be traversed by well- 

 constructed forest-roads belong to poor or obstinate village 

 communities, or to private owners. 



As regards the kinds of road to be constructed, a distinction 

 may be made between earth-roads, paved-roads or chaussdcs, 

 and roads chiefly made of wood. 



(c) Earth-roads. In earth-roads no material is used but 

 that found in the immediate neighbourhood of the road. In 

 the plains the road is lined-out, roots of trees extracted and 

 removed, ditches dug to serve as road-boundaries and for 

 drainage, and the material from the ditches placed on the 

 surface of the road to give it the requisite curvature. 



In mountainous forests a horizontal basis must first be 

 given to the road by excavating the slope above its axis and 

 throwing the material below it. Wherever the slopes are very 

 steep, retaining-walls of either stone or wood must be con- 

 structed below the road ; in such cases the stones necessary 

 for this purpose are nearly always available alongside the 

 road, and with them dry masonry retaining-walls may be 

 constructed ; only exceptionally should wood, which i so 

 perishable, be used for this purpose. 



Earth-roads may be improved considerably if they pass 

 over clay or limestone, by strewing the cart-track with small 

 broken stones, sand or gravel, or by putting on a layer of clay 

 if the soil is too loose. AYhenever roads are much used this 





