8 INTRODUCTION [CHAP. 



afford of the stimulus given to biological studies by the discovery of the New 

 World, and its peculiar fauna. Again the 17th century provides a reference 

 (Vannini, 161(5 l ) to the idea of the descent of Man from monkeys, but it 

 would be rash indeed to regard this as the earliest mention of that theory, the 

 anatomical comparison of Man and the apes having formed the subject of 

 controversy for at least a century before that time. 



In the 18th century the stream of literary references increases to a flood. 

 Here it is only possible to glance at a few of the more important develop- 

 ments. First we may notice the increased attention devoted to the principle 

 of the gradation of characters. Thus we find in 1786 2 the bold statement of 

 Hunter that the organ of hearing in fishes is "only a link in the chain of 

 varieties displayed in the formation of this organ of sense in different animals, 

 descending from the most perfect to the most imperfect in a regular pro- 

 gression." And in 1795 Charles White 3 of Manchester applied the Hunterian 

 method of comparison to Europeans and Negroes, as well as to different kinds 

 of animals. Twenty years later, the genius of Hunter is reflected again in 

 the admirable lectures of Lawrence on "The Natural History of Man." 



These ideas on the gradation of characters are associated with speculations 

 on the ancestry of Man in the remarkable work of Lord Monboddo 4 . Only 

 two quotations can be given, but it will be agreed that it is truly startling to 

 find such views clearly expressed in 1774, nearly a century before the publica- 

 tion of Darwin's great work. In discussing the origins of human society, 

 Lord Monboddo writes (Book 2, chapter iii) : " From the South Sea, I will 

 come back again to Africa, a country of very great extent ; in which, if it 

 were well searched, I am persuaded that all the several types of human 

 progression might be traced, and perhaps all the varieties of the species 

 discovered." Finally, in closing a long exposition of the resemblances between 

 Man and the apes, the author concludes (Book 2, chapter v) : "That my 

 facts and arguments are so convincing as to leave no doubt of the humanity 

 of the Orang-utan, I will not take upon me to say : but this much I will 

 venture to affirm, that I have said enough to make the philosopher consider 

 it as problematical, and a subject deserving to be enquired into " 



We may notice that in 1794, Erasmus Darwin (grandfather of Charles 

 Darwin) had inferred the quadrupedal attitude of human precursors, from 

 observations on the position of the urethral orifice in the human bladder. 



Such references must suffice to shew in what measure the ground had 

 been cleared for the great workers of the 19th century. A word must now be 

 added in reference to Dr Wallace, whose name will always be associated with 



1 Bendyshe, Mem. Anth. Soc. London, vol. i. 1863-4, p. 355. 



2 Hunter's Works, edited by J. F. Palmer, vol. iv. Preface, p. v. 



3 An account of the regular gradation in Man and in different animals and 

 regetables and from the former to the latter. 



4 Origin and Progress of Language. This invaluable memoir was brought to 

 my notice by Dr Kohlbrugge. Cf. Die morplmlogische Abstammung des Menschen. 

 Stuttgart, 1909. 



