irregular length. These stems are leafy and, in the main, their growth within 

 grazing height is open and fully available to livestock. Cattle browse Scouler 

 willow freely, but sheep, probably because of its common occurrence on sheep 

 ranges, make heavy use of its foliage. This species withstands close use un- 

 usually well ; the grazed stems, unless seriously injured, continue to produce 

 leafage for many years. 



Livestock tend to browse willows closely on the western ranges. In fact, 

 the taller species commonly show a definite grazing line, and overgrazed, 

 dead, or dying specimens are at times indicators of the former plentifulness 

 of various species. These conditions usually are observable on areas where 

 livestock concentrate, such as sheep bedgrounds, and along driveways, and are 

 particularly noticeable on willows around meadows and draws on cattle ranges. 

 The species of sufficient height and age are usually qualified to resist overgraz- 

 ing because the numerous stems, provide protection for the new shoots. Some- 

 times their abundance and the density of the stand prevent severe grazing 

 damage. Some species, it is true, are of low palatability and are materially 

 grazed only under abnormal conditions. Ordinarily, however, scattered indi- 

 viduals, low bushes, and even the open stands, which grow where livestock 

 concentrate, are subjected to continued close use and eventual destruction. 

 Generally, wherever willows show serious injury, the herbaceous cover on the 

 meadows is likely to be depleted. 



In some areas the willows constitute a very important source of food for 

 wildlife. In the Southwest, where these plants are less abundant than farther 

 north, the willows rank as excellent deer browse. In the Sierra Nevadas, 

 however, willows are apparently not very important in the deer diet. 4 Elk 

 and moose, apparently, pick at the foliage and twig ends during the sum- 

 mer, and utilize the leafless twigs of the 1-year wood during the fall and 

 winter. Alaskan studies show that willows are the chief summer browse 

 of reindeer. 6 With the exception of aspen, willows- are probably the most 

 important beaver food in the mountains of the West. 



Willows have long been planted to stabilize river banks, and large willow 

 mats, weighted down with rocks, have often been used to protect the levees 

 of the Mississippi and other rivers. Recently, the willows have received special 

 attention in erosion, control work in the Western States, the willow boughs 

 being employed largely in the construction of check dams. However, their 

 major value is probably as plantings to stabilize the soil. Willows are par- 

 ticularly adapted for growing on gullies, in meadows, and along streams, as 

 such sites are their natural home. They grow readily from cuttings. 



Willows are used in commerce chiefly in the manufacture of wicker baskets 

 and furniture. 07 Several species, notably purple willow (S. purpu'rea) and 

 almond willow (8. amygdali'na), are cultivated in and about New Jersey for 

 that purpose. The black willow, especially in the lower Mississippi Valley, 

 and several other species, such as the white willow (8. al'toa), yield lumber 

 on a commercial scale. These two species, as well as other representatives of 

 the genus, are used in the manufacture of artificial limbs, and for juvenile 

 baseball bats and other sport equipment, the tough, light, and elastic wood 

 being well suited for such purposes. Brittle willow (8. fra'ffllis) is employed 

 in the manufacture of a charcoal, especially valuable for black powder produc- 

 tion. Practically all species of willows contain both tannin and salicin. 8 



The common, introduced weeping willow (8. babylo'nica) is now widely 

 distributed throughout North America, being planted extensively first as an 

 ornamental. 9 Various species, including white and brittle willows, have been 

 planted widely as windbreaks in the prairie States. 



*Dixon, J. S. A STUDY OF THE LIFE HISTORY AND FOOD HABITS OF MULE DEER IN 

 CALIFORNIA. PART 2 FOOD HABITS. Calif. Fish and Game 20 (4) : [315]-354, illus. 

 1934. 



6 Hadwen, S., and Palmer, L. J. REINDEER IN ALASKA. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 1089, 

 74 pp., illus. 1922. 



6 Lamb, G. N. BASKET WILLOW CULTURE. V. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bull. 022, 34 pp., 

 illus. 1914. 



'Lamb, G. N. WILLOWS: THEIR GROWTH, USE, AND IMPORTANCE. U. S. Dept. Agr. 

 Bull. 316, 52 pp., illus. 1915. 



8 Detwiler, S. B. THE WILLOWS: IDENTIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS. Anier. Foi-- 

 estry 23 : 3-10, illus. 1917. 



9 Bailey, L. H. THE STANDARD CYCLOPKIHA OF IMIUTICIILTURK . . . New ed., 3 v., illus. 

 New York and London. 3933. 



