THE MILLING OF WHEAT 265 



making of flour became a distinct trade, milling has been es- 

 teemed as an honorable occupation. A sturdy and independent 

 character was always ascribed to the miller, and he and his mill 

 have been a favorite theme with the writers of all ages. 



Slave and Cattle Mills. For many centuries the greatest 

 changes in the milling industry were made in the motor power 

 rather than in the grinding process itself. The advent of the 

 quern and its improvements brought the professional miller, who 

 marked the beginning of manorial or village milling. As the 

 quern increased in size it ceased to be a hand mill, and power 

 was applied. At first slaves, and even criminals, supplied the 

 power. A circular piece of wood was placed around their necks, 

 so that they were unable to put their hands to the mouth and 

 eat of the meal. There were also cattle mills which were similar 

 to the slave mills, and for many years in Rome, "the human ani- 

 mals and their brute companions performed the flour-making 

 of the Eternal City.' 7 Cattle mills increased in number after 

 the abolition of slavery in the fourth century. As early as 

 1537, treadmills were worked by convicts in Europe. They are 

 still found in some countries, and are the sole survivors of the 

 old Roman slave mills. The slave and cattle mills were 

 supposed to have preceded the water mills, but the latter have 

 existed in northern and western Europe prior to all historic 

 records. They were also found in Greece, and later in Rome. 

 Besides the hand querns, the ancient Egyptians had a larger 

 quern that was worked by oxen. 



Wind and Water Mills. In many cases the wind mill ap- 

 peared before the water mill. In early England wind was 

 utilized to a greater extent than water, and wind mills were in 

 existence at least as early as 1191. With the development of 

 the mill stone, the grist mill appeared. The miller now ground 

 for a larger district, and exacted toll, called "mill corn," from 

 the farmers. The mills were generally owned by the lords of 

 manors, who farmed them and their appurtenant privileges to 

 the millers. The water mill was introduced into England at the 

 time of Julius Cassar. In France, Italy and elsewhere mention 

 of it became common in the fifth century. It was exactly like the 

 hand mill, except that water was used for power. Tidal mills 

 were worked as early as 1526. The water was impounded at 

 high tide, and the mills worked during the ebb. The wind mill 



