BY THE EIVERS OF BABYLON 49 



cases, with those picturesque shades of difference, of 

 national complexion, which the circumstances give in 

 each case. The Neolithic culture — pottery, agricul- 

 ture, weaving, housing, etc. — steadily improves. The 

 strong men of small groups become chiefs of larger 

 groups, and eventually kings of countries. Stone is 

 superseded by bronze, and bronze by iron. Picture- 

 writing evolves into an alphabet, and thus provides 

 a very effective means of communication. Definite 

 weights and measures are created, and commerce 

 improves. We roughly date the beginning of civiliza- 

 tion in each case when metal supersedes stone, kings 

 absorb a large number of chiefdoms, written docu- 

 ments begin, and men gather into cities. It means 

 merely that the steadily advancing culture has reached 

 a certain height to which we choose to give the name 

 " civilization." 



The first task in such a work as this is to bring the 

 Babylonian civilization into relation with the Cretan 

 and Egyptian as part of the general advance of culture 

 in that part of the world. In the case of Babylonia 

 this is difficult ; and it is not in the least my intention 

 in this work to indulge in personal speculation. I am 

 trying to let the reader of little leisure know what 

 modern scholars have discovered in this very interes- 

 ting field of archaeology and early history, and showing 

 how, when we put it all together, we get a most 

 instructive picture of the evolution of the race. 



If the reader will again look at a good map, he will 

 see the difficulty of bringing Babylonia into line with 

 the other early civilizations. Egypt was very easy to 

 discover from the Mediterranean region. Mesopotamia 

 is not. We may, however, suppose that an extension 

 was possible along the comparatively low land to the 



