DEFINITIONS AND GENERALITIES 9 



planting will be necessary on but a small percentage of the total 

 area, usually only where the time and method of the removal of 

 the final cuttings have been upset by fire, windfall, or insect 

 depredation. 1 Under more adverse conditions, and particularly 

 with ce'ftain species, 2 it is often extremely difficult to attain satis- 

 factory natural regeneration by any practical method of final 

 cuttings. In cases of this sort, even when natural regeneration is 

 attempted, open spaces may constitute 50 per cent or more of 

 the total area of the new stand which must be filled later by 

 seeding or planting. The difficulties often experienced in attain- 

 ing natural regeneration under the silvicultural systems in practice 

 sometimes lead to clear-cutting followed by artificial regeneration. 

 This has been the more common practice in handling coniferous 

 species in many parts of Europe, particularly in Germany. 

 Through the efforts of the Gayer school of silviculture, the pen- 

 dulum is now swinging in the opposite direction and special atten- 

 tion is being given to the growing of nearly all species in mixtures 

 and to the removal of the final cuttings by methods which will bring the 

 forest closer to natural conditions and not only assure better growth but 

 make the conditions better for natural regeneration. 



10. METHODS OF NATURAL REPRODUCTION FROM SEED 



Whenever practicable in the practice of forestry, reproduction ought 

 to be the result of the fellings themselves. The ease and quickness 

 with which it can be attained is, however, largely dependent upon 

 the silvicultural system under which the forest is managed. The 

 methods of natural reproduction under all silvicultural systems 

 fall into two classes: 



a. Natural seeding from trees standing over the area to be 

 regenerated. 



b. Natural seeding from trees along the border or at one side 

 of the area to be regenerated. 



When the seed trees left standing over the area to be regener- 

 ated are of all ages, as in the virgin forest, the method of regen- 



1 In the well-managed spruce and fir forests of East Baden, Germany, 

 artificial regeneration is confined chiefly to areas damaged by windfall. When 

 this manner of damage makes clear-cutting necessary, the area is usually 

 regenerated by planting. 



2 In Europe Scotch pine is nearly always regenerated by seeding or plant- 

 ing, except in the mountainous regions where it is grown in mixture and forms 

 but a small part of the total stand. 



