PROTECTION OF GREEN LEAVES AGAINST ATTACKS OF ANIMALS. 445 



prickly, and spine-stiffened, low bushes, growing together with thorns, and low 

 Tragacanth-shrubs, in which the green foliage is protected differently. In northern 

 regions not exposed to summer drought, where grazing animals find in summer 

 enough green fodder, this form of plant is almost entirely absent. It is only 

 met with in the heaths and pine forests of Central and Western Europe, in some 

 species of broom (Genista German-tea and Genista Anglica). 



In these regions, certain shrubs and young trees, which do not possess the 

 spine formation described above, acquire from the grazing animals themselves a 

 shape which strongly resembles the Phrygian form. It is brought about in the 

 following manner. If young trees of beeches, oaks, and larches, or bushes of 

 Ling (Calluna vulgaris), are accessible to goats, sheep, and oxen, these bite off 

 the ends of the fresh shoots, together with the leaves attached to them. The 

 remaining portion of the mutilated shoot in the neighbourhood of the wound 

 dries up, but the part behind keeps alive, and the buds on it develop even more 

 vigorously than would have been the case if the mutilation had not occurred. 

 The shoots which in the following year arise from these buds, however, may 

 suffer the same misfortune; they may again be pruned by grazing animals, and 

 when this is repeated every year, the mutilated beeches and larches at length 

 come to resemble the beeches and larches of old French gardens, which have 

 assumed the shape of pyramids and obelisks in consequence of the continual 

 clipping of the gardener's shears. The branches of these small mutilated trees 

 become so thick, and the dry, hard twigs on the periphery of the crown arc so 

 crowded together, that even the greedy goats are prevented from breaking through 

 the armour, and abstain from pulling out the green shoots from behind the dry 

 stumps. Thus at length the unprotected plants obtain a defensive armour which 

 is capable of saving them entirely from the further attacks of grazing animals. 

 Many of these young mutilated and bitten trees, of course, never develop into 

 strong lofty specimens; but in some species the rough treatment which they 

 undergo in their youth does not result in lasting injury. This applies especially 

 to larch-trees growing in Alpine valleys. The young trees gradually form thick 

 branched bushes in their struggle with the goats, and a top cannot be definitely 

 distinguished in them, since the central shoots, as long as they can be reached by 

 the goats' mouths, are not spared. But, at last, after a number of years, the 

 bushy larches attain to such a height and circumference, that the goats can no 

 longer reach the upper shoots. And behold, a strong shoot arises from the middle 

 of the much-branched bush, develops a whorl of lateral branches, elongates from 

 year to year, and being no longer harassed by the grazing animals, grows up 

 into a lofty larch-tree. For a long time, at the lowest portion of the tree, may 

 be seen projecting the oldest lateral boughs, which have become abundantly 

 branched in consequence of the mutilation, and which serve to protect and defend 

 the developing central stem. But gradually these lower branches decay, and 

 fall crumbling on the ground; thus the last reminiscence of their severe youth ii 

 obliterated. 



