102 FORESTRY 



spiral growth, wavy wood!, and burrs. In the first of these the 

 direction of "the fibres is spiral "to the stem's axis ; burrs 

 result from* the' incomplete' development of clusters of ad- 

 ventitious buds ; in some woods (e.g. American Bird's-eye 

 Maple) they are of much beauty. 



Loose knots are the remains of dead branches which have 

 been gradually embraced by the stem during growth in thick- 

 ness. Though enclosed in the wood they are not incorporated 

 by it, and considerably lower the value of sawn-up timber. 

 Knots of this kind are apt to occur in conifers, especially 

 Spruce. 



The Harvesting of Timber 



It is usual throughout Germany and Austria (with the ex- 

 ception of the mountainous districts) for the owner of a forest 

 to engage the labour necessary for harvesting the timber crop. 

 Only very rarely is this work given over to the employees of 

 timber merchants. So far as possible local labour is em- 

 ployed. In this way the system of small holdings suits well 

 in conjunction with forests held by the State, or proprietors 

 owning large tracts. Most forest work is done at seasons of 

 the year when there is least necessity for attendance on small 

 farms. Especially is this the case with fellings, which are 

 best carried out in winter, when the agricultural occupations 

 of the crofter reach their lowest ebb. But if such workmen 

 are not available, others, probably less keenly interested in 

 woodcraft, must be engaged. 



To secure a sufficient number of good men, it is essential 

 above all to pay a fair wage and provide adequate housing 

 accommodation, in bothies or otherwise, for the staff. At 

 the same time, this is an item of expenditure that may easily 

 exceed the limits of profitable management, and must be kept 

 strictly within bounds. 



It is usual to divide the number of woodcutters into gangs, 

 and to apportion to them work in keeping with their skill 

 and experience. Each gang should have its foreman- worker, 

 who is held responsible for the behaviour of the rest. 



