Chap. 49.] THE MODE OF PLOUGHING. 63 



oracular precepts given by Cato 55 on the subject. " What is 

 the essence of good tillage ? Good ploughing. What is the 

 second point? Ploughing again. What is the third point? 

 Manuring. Take care not to make crooked furrows. Be 

 careful to plough at the proper time." In warm localities it 

 is necessary to open the ground immediately after the winter 

 solstice, but where it is cold, directly after the vernal equinox : 

 this, too, should be done sooner in dry districts than in wet ones, 

 in a dense s"oil than a loose one, in a rich land than a meagre 

 one. In countries where the summers are hot and oppressive, 

 the soil cretaceous or thin, it is the best plan to plough between 

 the summer solstice and the autumnal equinox. Where, on 

 the other hand, the heat is moderate, with frequent falls of rain, 

 and the soil rich and full of vegetation, the ploughing should 

 be done during the prevalence of the heat. A deep, heavy 

 soil, again, should be ploughed in winter ; but one that is very 

 thin and dry, only just before putting in the seed. 



Tillage, too, has its own particular rules 55 Never touch the 

 ground while it is wet and cloggy ; plough with all your might ; 

 loosen the ground before you begin to plough. This method 

 has its advantages, for by turning up the clods the roots of the 

 weeds are killed. Some persons recommend that in every case 

 the ground should be turned up immediately after the vernal 

 equinox. Land that has been ploughed once in spring, from 

 that circumstance has the name of *' vervactum." 57 This, too, 

 is equally necessary in the case of fallow land, by which term 

 is meant land that is sown only in alternate years The oxen 

 employed in ploughing should be harnessed as tightly as pos- 

 sible, to make them plough with their heads up ; attention 

 paid to this point will prevent them from galling the neck. If 

 it is among trees and vines that you are ploughing, the oxen 

 should be muzzled, to prevent them from eating off the tender 

 buds. There should be a small bill-hook, too, projecting from 

 the plough-tail, for the purpose of cutting up the roots ; this 

 plan being preferable to that of turning them up with the share, 

 and so straining the oxen. When ploughing, finish the furrow 

 at one spell, and never stop to take breath in the middle. 



& De Re Rust. c. 61. 



56 These rules are borrowed mostly from Varro, B. i. c. 19, and Coiu- 

 mella, B. ii. c. 4. 

 w " Vere actum ;" " worked in spring." 



