PLANT SOCIETIES 13 



observer. Note the undergrowth in woods or under trees 

 (Fig. 10). Observe that in pine and spruce forests there 

 is almost no undergrowth, partly because there is very little 

 light. 



On the same area the societies may differ at different 

 times of the year. There are spring, summer, and fall soci- 

 eties. The knoll which is cool with grass and strawber- 

 ries in June may be aglow with goldenrod in September. 

 If the bank is examined in May, look for the young plants 

 that are to cover it in July and October; if in Septem- 

 ber, find the dead stalks of the flora of May. What suc- 

 ceeds the skunk cabbage, hepaticas, trilliums, phlox, violets, 

 buttercups of spring ? What precedes the wild sunflowers, 

 ragweed, asters, and goldenrod of fall ? 



The Landscape. To a large extent the color of the land- 

 scape is determined by the character of the plant societies. 

 Evergreen societies remain green, but the shade of green 

 varies from season to season ; it is bright and soft in 

 spring, becomes dull in midsummer and fall, and assumes 

 a dull yellow-green or a black-green in winter. Deciduous 

 societies vary remarkably in color from the dull browns 

 and grays of winter to the brown greens and olive-greens 

 of spring, the staid greens of summer, and the brilliant 

 colors of autumn. 



The autumn colors are due to intermingled shades of 

 green, yellow, and red. The coloration varies with the kind 

 of plant, the special location, and the season. Even in the 

 same species or kind, individual plants differ in color ; and 

 this individuality usually distinguishes the plant year by 

 year. That is, an oak which is maroon red this autumn is 

 likely to exhibit that range of color every year. The au- 

 tumn color is associated with the natural maturity and 

 death of the leaf, but it is most brilliant in long and open 



