1839.] 



THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 



421 



But this will not enable iis to compare stones of dilt'erent classes togctlier. 

 The sandstones al)sorb the least water, but they disintegrate more than the 

 niagnesian limestones, which, considering their compactness, absorb a great 

 quantity. 



Tlie heaviest and most cohesive of the sandstones are the Craigleith and 

 the Tark Sjiring; the lightest and least cohesive is the Moi-ley Moor. 



Among the niagnesian limestones that from Bolsover is the lieaviest, 

 strongest, and absorbs the least water ; whilst that from Cadeby is the lightest, 

 weakest, and most ahsorbeiit. The aiagnesian limestones from Jackdaw 

 Craig and Bramham Moor, which closely resemlile each other, are i-emarkable 

 for considerable cohesive strength, united with h)W specific gravity ; they 

 disintegrate but little, an<l absorb less water than stones of the same class of 

 higher specific gravity. 



Among the oolites the Ketton Kag is greatly distinguished from all the 

 rest by its great cohesive strength and high specific gravity ; whilst the stone 

 from i5ox, in the neighbourhood of Batli, is the least cohesive, and has the 

 lowest specific gravity. 



(Signed) J. F. Daniell. 



C. Wheatstone. 



13UIT1.S11 ASSOCIATION FOR THK ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 

 (From tlic Reports of the AHiencciim and Lilernri/ Gazette.) 



Oil the most Eeoiiomieal Proportion of Power to Tonnage in Steam-vessck. By 

 Mr. Scott Kussell. 



The rule by which most proprietors of steam-vesseLs have been Kuided is 

 the .-ipplicMtion of power in small proportiun to tonna^;e ; but where veloeily 

 «,is the chief object, higher proportional power has been employed, with a 

 great expenditure of fuel, ami not with the ratio of increase to the velocity ; 

 or hiscli powers and large consumption of fuel have been attended with only 

 a slli-ht increase of velocity ; and. iherelore. the emplovment of low powers, 

 with low velocities, would api'car to be most economical. But thi.s conclusion 

 h.'S not been borne out ; and, by an e.Kaniination of the books of expenditure 

 of fuel, belonuing to several companies, he had found th.it experience htid 

 proved the use of high steam powers and hi^h velocities more economical 

 than low ones. This had been attributed to Mr. Russell's wave principle, and 

 he h;ul, therefore, carefully investigated the subject. The result at which he 

 liad arrived, appeared to him quite new and very remarkable. The general 

 principle was :— that in a vovage by a steam-vessel in the open sea. exposed, 

 ol course, to adverse winds, there is a certain high velocity and high iiortion 

 oi power which maybe accomplished with less expenditure of fuel and of 

 room than at a lower speed with less power. This was proved arithmetically 

 and by a formula, in relation to the same vessel, with dirt'erent powers of 

 engine, whereby any other ease may be determined. 



Fair IVeather.—VlOO tons, 1-00 hoise-power. 9 miles an hour, 216 miles 

 a day. 1 ton of coal an hour ; 2160 miles in 10 days. 240 tons of coal. 



l;:()0 tons, 500 horse po«er. 10 miles an hour, 2-10 miles a day, 1} ton of 

 coal an hour ; 2160 miles in 9 days, 270 tons of coal. 



./ilverse ll'enlher.— \2i)0 tons. 4tlO horse power, 5 miles an hour, 120 miles 

 a day. 1 ton ot coal an hour; 2160 miles in 18 days, 436 tons of coal. 



1200 tons, .500 hor-e power, 6i{ miles an hour, 162 miles a day, IJ tons of 

 ( (Kil an hour ; 2160 miles in 13 and one iiflh days, 3'J5 tons of coal. 



General Formula. — Let r repre.'-ent the velocity of a given steam-vessel in 

 a lair weather voyage ; «', the same vessel in an adverse weather voyage; 

 1)" a vessel of higher power in the fair one ; v'", the same in the adverse one ; 

 p. the power of the former vessel ; /)', Jatter vessel — 



Vo"'—{tt — v')^ 



V^ 



p 



-("-"') 



in the ease of equal expense, when the highest proportion of power that will 

 be economical in fuel may lie ;it once obtained. 



IJr. Lardner observed, that it was a new theory ; but, from Mr. Russell's 

 exposition, he was satisfied with its accuracy. 



Mr. Rus.scll stated, in answer to a question, that the principle was only 

 true in reference to long voyages, because where vessels were not exposed to 

 continued adverse weather, a great additional power would only be an addi- 

 tional expense. 



New Fuel ; for Steam Naviiration. ^-e. 



The learned President (Rev. W. Vernon Hareourl ) described to the Section 

 a plan of cementing together small coal and coal-dust for fuel, for wliich 

 a patent had been obtained by Mr. Oram. [See last vol. of the " TV.™ s ac- 

 tions," Notices and Abstracls. p. 85.] For more than twenty years it had 

 atllicted him more than aught short of a moial evil, to .see the wicked waste 

 nnule ill this suljstanee. the most precious gift which Providence had boun- 

 teou.sly bestowed on mankind. To this country in particular it was of ines- 

 timable value ; and yet, until now, when be might consider the means of 

 saving and economising it devised, one million of tons out of three millions 

 .nmu.-illy hail been burnt and destroyed at the mouths of the pits. Mr. Oram 

 had bei-n attracted to this subject from pursuits of a ditVerent kind. In pre- 

 paring picture-frames, it had occurred to him that to nn.nld this wa.sted 

 brescia into the lorm of bricks, cau.se it to cohere, and lit it for all the uses 

 of mil. Would be a must desirable altainment. At Olasgou it was allowed 

 to remain at the bottom of the pits ; ai Newcastle it was in no way brought 

 to market by those whose competition led them to supply only superior coals. 

 The nuitcrial rescued from this •• wicked waste' by Mr. Oramniisht consist 



of pieces of about the size of walnuts and all the rest of the sl.ick (and it 

 should be observed, that tlie best coal was most liable to break in this man- 

 ner) ; and these he composed together in a form so much less in bulk, and 

 occupying so much less room in stowage, that the quantity requisite for a 

 steam voyage of three months would not be mori' than of coals which w-ould 

 only last for two. How important was this at an era when coal was conver- 

 tible into coach-horses; when our chariots were of iron, and drawn by steeds 

 of fire ! It should be remembered too, that coal could never more be formed ; 

 that Nature had already deposited her work for our use in this formation, 

 and w hen once exhausted it could not be renewed. It was therelin-e the more 

 necrssary, in our i.sland blessed with so abundant a supply, to. apply economy 

 to its expenditure. Revenue, manufactures, comforts, all depended on (his 

 precious treasure ; and therefore it was that he considered this result to be 

 of such inestimable worth. It had been said that people had a right to do 

 what they liked with their own ; and in a restricted sense this was very truer 

 but in doing w hat we liked ivith our own, we had no right to destroy what 

 belonged to posterity ; and this had been done to a most injurious "extent 

 with the coal-fields of F.ngland. Me would now read Mr. Or;i'm's eommuni- 

 calum, only observing th.il trying and confirming his experiments ,at Wool- 

 wich, under the inspection of Mr. P. Kuart, a year ago, he had obtained a 

 jiatent, and had since been travelling ini the Continent to make arrangement.f 

 accordingly. Mr. Oram stated that his experiments were made on Pontop 

 coals of the best quality, which were compared with his rubbish in the brick 

 forin, and compounded of two thirds of coal-dust and one third of anthracite ; 

 which mixture possessed the greatest power, greater than if entirely of coal. 

 By one pound of this fuel, thirteen pounds of water were evaporated, and by 

 one pound of Pontop coal alone only sfrven pounds and a quarter. Nearly 

 double ! The process was a simple one, and had, indeed, been rudely prac- 

 tised in Wales, about Liege, and elsewhere, where the peasantry were in (he 

 habit of making uji the coal rubbish into balls with clay, and thus supplying 

 themselves with an indifii'rently burning fuel. Mr. Oram took (he dry mud 

 (it must be !//■//) of the Thames or any other large river, or any vegetable 

 earth ^vuuld do, and the mixture was — oO or 10 gallons of walci', 40 pounds 

 of coal tar, 30 poui ds of lime, powdered, and 100 or 200 pounds of dry mud, 

 to every ton of coal-dust. The compound was then pressed and dessicaied, 

 and an excellent fuel was produced. The oxygen contained in (he pores and 

 iiUersdees supplied combusdon in abundance, and (he muddy ingredients, 

 forming a skin, jirotected (he bricks from (he waste which exposure (o (he 

 atmosphere caused in coal. For (hey were all aware (ha( if ilie cook wanted 

 (o liglK a fire quickly, insiead of (aking small pieces of coal ready (o her 

 hand, she would take (he (rouble (o break a lump into fragments for (hat 

 purpose. Experience had taught her that (he adnosphere had de[)rived (he 

 former in some degree of (heir igneous property, and as every one «;is prone 

 (o iierform what they had (o do with (he least possible labour, she had tuiind 

 out (hat breaking up (he fresli lumps was the least (rouble after all. 'Ihe 

 shape of these bricks was another recommemlition. They were convenient 

 for packing; and yet another quality belonged to them of considerable im- 

 portance. It was necessary in steam-vessels to have the fuel near the boilers, 

 where the heat was intense ; and the bricks, sbiel led by their pellicle, re- 

 sisted this high (empera(ure, which would gready deteriorate coal in the samcj 

 situation. ])r. Buckland (hen nodred that Mr. (Jrani, of Portsiuouth, (he 

 invenior of the admiiab'e plan of biscuit baking, had also employed a com- 

 IHisidon of this sort. His cement was gas tar ; ami be had laid his method 

 open for the public benefit, without availing liimself of a iiatent right. It 

 was lighter than coal ; but Mr. Oram (and i( was only on his audiority he 

 made (he remark) had poinied out advantages which his mixture enjoyed 

 over (hat of Mr. (irant. 



A gentleman s(a(e 1 (he coal of this country (about Birmingham) would 

 not run (oge(her. in (his way, like (lie Newcastle coal. He had for years 

 been trying esperimcids with it ; ard had tried all those of Mr. Oram, e.yeept 

 the lime. He had employed tar, oil, bituminous clay ; and though he bad 

 succeeded (o a certain extent, so as (o serve hot-houses, SiC, he had never 

 been able to obtain ,1 fuel quite apjilicable to domestic u.ses. Could such be 

 obttiincd for their fires and nianuiactories, it would be an inmicnse s.LVing. 



On the Chaiiaes ami Improveiiients in the Embouehiire of the Mersey. — By Mr 

 J. B. Yates. 



He referred to the new channel in the harbour of Liverpool, which h.ad 

 been brought before the notice of tlie Association by Capt. Deiiham. The 

 intricacy ol access to this harbour arises from the accumulation outside of 

 numerous beds of .sand, which are frequently and suddenly changing their 

 position and elevation. It can scarcely be doubted, that at some remote 

 j/eriod the estuary of the Mersey did not exist at all, or. at most, in a very 

 limited form; a forest and moi'ass may have occupied the land Ijetween 

 Forniby Point and Helbre. Numerous trunks aiul roots of large forest trees 

 are, to this day, found along the theshire ;md Ijancashire shores, while ex- 

 tcnsvie tracts of peat are oljserved in many places starting up among (he 

 sands. A violcn( disrupdon must h ive taken place at the mouth of ilu' es- 

 tuary, by which enormous masses of sand and inarle have been thrown out, 

 |ierlia]is proved by the homogeneous s(rue(ure of (he banks on either side, 

 in 18^8. a numi er of human skeletons were disinterred opposite the Leasow 

 Lighthouse, afionling strong evidence that a bnrying-ground had formerly 

 existed there; and a similar cemetery is discernible at Fwiniby. This liglu- 

 house stands in |ilaee of another, which was neaier to the sea by more ihati 

 half a mile— a sue whieli. at the time of its erection, seemed to have been 

 (inn. dry land, but was rendered useless by the encroachments of tlie water, 

 w hicli continued to incretisc. It was not until the tea liad broken down tlie 

 ridge of .sand which li.td formed its boun iiry, that a strong embankment 

 was made, extending a mile and a quarter in Ironl of the present lighibousc. 

 The .sand banks in this estuary are tossed to and tro by the force ol the winds 

 and tides, and are constandy changing their shapes and elevations, and, 

 having no escape, they remain pent up' in the bay. In 1687, an e.xeellent 

 channel existed op;;osi(e (o Formby Poin(. iis tlejitb from three to ten fathoms ; 

 but, not being marked by buoys, the Ruck (.h.innel was a( that time the 

 entrance in common use, though dry at low water. It has since become 



ileepej-, and thus a I'haiist; Las taken place virni (lie ilyle Sand BauJs, A 



