RUSSO-TURKISH WARS 



:,i2s 



RUSTS 



a menace to the other. While Turkey grew 

 weaker and weaker, Russia continued to de- 

 velop, and the Moslem nation would probably 

 have been absorbed if Russia had not been held 

 in check by the other European nations, who 

 were jealous of Russia's growing power. 



Little is remembered to-day of the later wars 

 of the eighteenth century except that thry \\< r 

 the occasion of daring exploits on the part of 

 Suvorov, a celebrated Russian field-marshal 

 who won many spectacular victories over the 

 war of 1736-1739 Austria was 

 allied with Russia, and together they succeeded 

 in freeing the Tartars in the south from al- 

 legiance to Turkey. By the war of 1787-1792 

 the boundaries of Russia were extended to the 

 Dniester River. 



Wan of the Nineteenth Century. There were 

 four important wars during the nineteenth 

 century. The first, lasting from 1806 to 1812, 

 resulted in an extension of Russia's boundaries 

 across the Dniester and on to the River Pruth, 

 which gave it the province of Bessarabia. By 

 the second, the war of 1827-1829, which ended 

 with the Treaty of Adrianople, Russia forced 

 Turkey to recognize the independence of 

 Greece. The third was the Crimean War 

 (1854-1856), in which Turkey fought with Eng- 

 land, France and Sardinia against Russia, and 

 got back a part of Bessarabia (see CRIMEA, sub- 

 head Crimean War). 



The last war of the century is the one usually 

 referred to as the Russo-Turkish War (1877- 

 1878). Russia had never wavered in its deter- 

 mination to regain the territory and influence 

 lost in the Crimean War, and in 1877 an ex- 

 cuse was found for attack in the massacres of 

 the Christian peasants in Bulgaria. The most 

 interesting feature of the war is that Russia 

 fought and won by modem methods. The 

 value of "spade work," improvised trenches 

 and fortifications for securing invisibility, was 

 clearly demonstrated by the Russian forces. 

 These methods won the siege of Plevna, the 

 turning point of the war, when the heroic army 

 of Osman, the Turkish general, was captured. 

 With the exception of this one siege and the 

 rout of the Turkish army at Philippopolis, 

 there were no decisive battles. It was an en- 

 durance test in which Russia succeeded in wear- 

 ing out the Turks. The Treaty of San Stefano, 

 which ended the war, was very favorable to 

 Russia, but three months later England, backed 

 by the other European powers, intervened and 

 succeeded in modifying the terms of the treaty. 

 For details, see BERLIN, CONGRESS OF. A.C. 



RUST, in the arts, a brownish-red substance 

 th;it forms on the surface of iron or steel 

 when they are exposed to a damp atmosphere. 

 The term without modification means iron rust, 

 which is a compound of oxygen and iron, com- 

 monly known as the red oxide of iron. Rust is 

 formed by the union of the oxygen of the air 

 with the iron, and moisture is an important 

 agent in producing the change. When rust is 

 formed the surface of the metal is corroded, 

 so that a polished surface is made rough. Rust 

 not only corrodes the surface, but it weakens 

 the metal. Long exposure to air and moisture, 

 for instance, will cause nails to rust off, and 

 rust frequently eats holes through sheet iron. 

 Articles of iron and steel should be kept in 

 dry places, or their surfaces should be coated 

 with some substance that will resist the action 

 of oxygen. Polished tools are easily protected 

 by wiping them over with a cloth soaked in 

 oil. See OXYGEN. 



How to Remove Rust. Rust may be removed 

 from iron and steel by scrubbing with water, 

 or by the use of the flour of emery or any 

 other polishing powder, provided the rust has 

 not been forming for too long a time. A thick 

 coat of rust requires the use of an emery wheel, 

 a grindstone or a file for its removal. The 

 brownish-yellow spots of iron rust formed on 

 linen may be removed by soaking the fabric 

 in a weak solution of oxalic acid for a short 

 time and then thoroughly washing it. A strong 

 solution of this acid will weaken and may 

 destroy the fabric. Sometimes lemon juice is 

 used with success. 



RUSTS, in botany, various forms of fungus 

 that grow upon other plants (see FUNGI). The 

 name was applied because the growth bears a 

 close resemblance to iron rust. There are nu- 

 merous varieties of rust. Black rusts are dark, 

 and sometimes almost black. Rusts grow upon 

 both wild and cultivated plants ; those that 

 attack grains cause a great deal of damage. It 

 is estimated that the red rust on wheat causes 

 the farmers of the continent a loss of from 

 $10,000,000 to $15,000,000 annually, and in ad- 

 dition to this it causes more or less damage 

 to oats and barley. The damage from rust in 

 the great grain-growing regions of Canada is 

 relatively much less than in the United States. 



Rust consists of a minute fungus that fastens 

 itself on the stems and leaves of the plants, 

 appearing at first as tiny black or brown dots. 

 The fungi multiply rapidly, drawing their nour- 

 ishment from the plant and sapping its vitality. 

 Wheat affected by rust produces a small yield, 



