INTRODUCTION. 5 



of importance are left uncared for by the Government, and only a few are still in the 

 hands of corporations. Those operated by companies, of course, charge tolls from com- 

 merce, but those under control of the Government are free of charge and open 

 to all. 



The improvement of rivers by the General Government was begun in a small way 

 in 1827 in the States of Maine, Connecticut, Delaware, and North Carolina, but did 

 not become general until within the last twenty years. No comprehensive plans of 

 improvement have been adopted, but, briefly stated, the operations consist in widening, 

 deepening, and straightening channels by dredging, blasting out rocks in shoals and 

 bends, removing snags, trees, wrecks, and other obstructions with boats and appliances 

 built for the purpose; constructing wing-dams, training- walls, jetties, and dikes to contract 

 channels when necessary to maintain the requisite depth or to give direction to the 







currents; erecting piers or cribwork for the protection of craft from ice and storms; 

 grading and protecting caving banks, making cut-offs at bends, and canals around falls 

 or rapids; constructing levees to prevent overflow; and the building of locks and dams 

 to furnish slackwater navigation. 



Administration. In the United States, as in most other countries, the navigable 

 rivers are under the control of the General Government. The waterways are a part of 

 the public domain, administered in the interests of the general public, and constitute 

 an excellent regulator for the transportation rates of the country. They are open to all, 

 with liberal regulations for their use. The improvement works are not only constructed 

 but they are also maintained at the public expense, and the more important streams 

 are lighted at night in order to render navigation safe. 



The preparation of streams for navigation, as well as their maintenance, are admin- 

 istered under the direction of the War Department by the Corps of Engineers, while 

 matters pertaining to navigation itself, such as lighting, regulations for navigators, etc., 

 are directed by the Secretary of the Treasury. This work of river and harbor improve- 

 ment is under the general direction of the Chief of Engineers, whose headquarters 

 are at the National Capital, with a staff of immediate assistants. For the better execu- 

 tion of the improvements the country is separated into divisions, and these again into dis- 

 tricts, over each of which an engineer officer has charge. Each district officer is assisted 

 when necessary by other officers and by civilian engineers, superintendents, inspectors, 

 overseers, etc., assigned to the special works in the various localities, and is authorized, 

 subject to the approval of the Chief of Engineers, to make and enforce contracts, employ 

 workmen, purchase materials, and make disbursements. Commissions of officers and 

 civilians, and boards of officers, are also appointed when desirable for conducting work 

 or preparing projects. The California Debris Commission, for example, was created 

 to regulate such hydraulic mining as might be deemed injurious to navigation as well 

 as to mature plans for the improvement of rivers which had already been injured by this 

 class of mining. 



All expenditures for improvement must first be authorized by Congress, either 



