VAUGHAN-VENTILATION. 



731 



The grounds embrace about 21 acres and form a 

 beautiful park in which the students may indulge in 

 various forms of recreation. A lake affords facilities 

 for boating and skating. 



A preparatory department, maintained from the 

 opening of the college until 1888, was then discon- 

 tinued by vote of the trustees. The departments of 

 painting and music were in 1878 changed into schools 

 of painting and music, which have their respective 

 courses of study leading to diplomas. Resident pupils 

 in music or painting are members of the college family 

 and are required to give a portion of their time to col- 

 legiate study. Each school has a director, who. to- 

 gether with the president of the college, lias entire 

 control of his depatOMOfc 



In the regular course for the degree of A. B. the 

 studies are all prescribed to the middle of the sopho- 

 more year and languages to the close of the same year. 

 During the junior and senior years each student sub- 

 mits for the approval of the faculty an election of 

 from 13 to 15 recitation hours per week. Special 

 courses designed chiefly for teachers may be pursued. 

 For admission to these courses the requirements are in 

 general the same as for admission to the regular 

 course, viz., examinations similar to those required for 

 entrance to the leading colleges of the country. To 

 obtain the degree of A. 31. or of Ph. D. the candidate 

 must pursue a course of non-professional study ap- 

 proved by the faculty, and must present a satisfactory 

 thesis upon some topic of the work. Seven hundred 

 and sixty-nine young women have received the degree 

 of A. B. and 29 that of A. M. The first honorary 

 degree, LL. D. , was given in 1887. 



The charge for one year, including tuition, board, 

 and laundry work, is $400. In addition to the 

 $100,000 given as an auxiliary fund, there are eight 

 scholarships, yielding $300 or $400 annually. These 

 funds are for students in the regular course. 



(j. M. T.) 



VAUGHAN, CHARLES JOHN, English clergyman. 

 was born at Leicester, Aug. 6, 1816. He was educated 

 at Trinity College, Cambridge, and graduated B. A. 

 in 1838, and M. A. in 1841. and was fellow of his col- 

 lege from 1839 to 1842. Having taken orders he be- 

 came vicar at Leicester in 1841, and in 1844 was made 

 head master of Harrow School, which position he held 

 fifteen years. In 1800 he was made vicar of I Kin- 

 caster and rural dean and chancellor of York Cathe- 

 dral. In 18G9 he was made master of the Temple. 

 London, and in ]S7'. dean of Llandaff. He was a 

 member of the Cambridge University Commission 

 1858-62, and of tlje Knglisli New Test-iment Revision 

 Company until the close of its labors in l!S81. He has 

 been noted as a preacher, and several volumes of his 

 sermons have been published. Among these are 

 Memorisdl of Harrow Sumlm/x (I N.V.I); Jiei-i-falion 

 of St. John (1863); Church of 'the First l)\p (3 vuls., 

 1863-65) ; Authorized or Revised? (1882) ; Pwippuuu 

 (1885). 



VKDDER, ELIHU, artist, was born in New York, 

 Feb. 26, 1836. and had his first art instruction in his 

 native city. Later on he studied also with T. H. 

 Matterion, and under Picot in Paris. For a time he had 

 a studio in New York, but he subsequently removed 

 to Italy, where he has since resided. His works arc 

 characterized by fertility of imagination, and broad 

 and vigorous handling. Ideal in motive, they show 

 the desire of the artist to give expression to his emo- 

 tions and thoughts, and have given rise to much dis- 

 cussion as to their intent and meaning. His more 

 important paintings include The Lair of the Sea- 

 Serpent; Arab Listening to the Great Sphinx; The 

 Crucifixion; The Lost Mind; Roc's Egg; Youn 

 Marsyas; and Cumean Sibyl. He has also designe 

 a series of strong and original illustrations for Omar 

 Khayyam's Rulnn/nt. He was elected an associate 

 of the National Academy, N. Y., in 1863, and an 

 academician two years later. (r. L. W.) 



VENTILATION AND WARMING. Ventila- 

 tion consists in changing the air any- 

 See Vdl. XXIV. w | a . lx . whether it be in an enclosed 



Ue O s|iace '"' u " !>en ficld ' but is e e erally 



understood to mean the substitution 

 of pure air for foul air in dwellings, public buildings, 

 hospitals, factories, ships, cars, mines, etc. ; in short, 

 wherever rna'n or beast is liable to reinhale bis own or 

 others' breath. Formerly the openings of doors, win- 

 dows, crevices, and chimneys were deemed sufficient 

 (if the subject was thought of, which is doubtful), and 

 it was also supposed that a cold room was a healthy 

 one. In modern times mechanical ventilation by 

 means of fan-wheels was first introduced in cotton- 

 factories, and the improved health of the operatives 

 drew attention to the necessity of pure air in the habi- 

 tation of man. Although scientists and doctors had 

 long believed and asserted that deleterious gases viti- 

 ated the air and made it injurious to human life, and 

 fires were built in the public streets in those days for 

 the purpose of destroying these gases, it is only within 

 recent years that the scientific study of ventilation and 

 its practical application have been deemed of sufficient 

 importance to be incorporated in the plans and specifi- 

 cations of architects and builders. Without entering 

 into the discussion of the chemical constituents of the 

 atmosphere (see ATMOSPHERE in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA 

 BRITANNICA) it may be stated that one cubic foot of 

 pure air per second is what should be allowed every 

 individual, though half that amount is all that is 

 absolutely necessary, and in order that he may not 

 reinhale it a change of air is indispensable, and must 

 be maintained without giving the sensation of an 

 npleasant draught say at the rate of one and not to 

 exceed three feet per second. 



Warming is the twin problem with Ventilation, and 

 the two will be considered together, as they are almost 

 inseparable. In order to properly ventilate and warm 

 a room in winter or keep it fresh or cool in summer, 

 it is of course necessary to remove the vitiated or foul 

 air in the same quantity as the pure air is introduced 

 they should be simultaneous and interdependent, 

 otherwise there is imperfect ventilation. The prob- 

 lem is how to accomplish this doub'e or reciprocal 

 movement of air without creating unpleasant draughts, 

 and at the same time securing an equable temperature 

 (say. 70 more or less) throughout the room. It is a 

 well-known fact that heated air rises to the ceiling, 

 while cold air, the emanations from the breath and 

 body, the products of combustion, bad odors, etc., are 

 found near the floor; this being the case, it would 

 seem the most natural thing in the world to withdraw 

 the impure air at the point where it is found, the 

 floor, and let the pure air in at or near the ceiling, as the 

 vacuum created by withdrawing the foul air would 

 cause the warm air to descend gradually to the floor. 

 Ventilation may be either natural or artificial; the 

 former is divided into (I) Diffusion, (!') Action of' (lie 

 winds or perflation, and (3) Movements made by un- 

 equal weights of air. Every gas diffuses inversely as 

 the square root of its density, and rooms are par- 

 tially ventilated on this principle through crevices and 

 imperfect carpentry, and even through brick and 

 stone walls (Parke). The action of the winds or per- 

 flation is uncertain and difficult to regulate opening 

 windows at top and bottom, inserting slanting boards 

 to direct the wind upward, or special openings made 

 at various points, ventilating tubes with cowls, etc., 

 have all been tried with indifferent success. Move- 

 ments made by unequal weights of air are more satis- 

 factory the fire-place and chimney afford a good illus- 

 tration of this kind of natural ventilation ; also the 

 furnace witli registers and outlet tubes properly placed ; 

 but this partakes of artificial ventilation, which will 

 now be considered. This may be divided into plenum 

 or forced ventilation (propulsion) and vacuum or aspi- 

 ration (extraction). There is much diversity of opin- 

 ion as to the relative merits of these two kinds of 



