VIOLLET LE DUC VIKCHOW. 



741 



lets are of Old World species, the American violets 

 generally being not showy in culture, though V. pe- 

 data responds well to cultivation, and is becoming 

 common in gardens. (c. M.) 



VIOLLET LE DUC, EUGENE EMANUEL (1814- 

 1 878), a French architect and author, was born at Paris, 

 Jan. 27, 1814. He studied architecture, at first under 

 Leclerc, occupying himself specially with the Gothic 

 architecture of the middle ages, and thereafter by 

 observation in the course of tours of investigation in 

 Italy, Sicily, and Southern France, wherein he paid 

 attention chiefly to Greek and Roman remains. In 

 1840 he was made inspector of the restoration of the 

 Sainte Chapelle, Paris, and was successively intrusted 

 with the restoration of the ancient churches of Verze- 

 fay, of Saint Pere, Montreale (Yonne). Poissy, Carcas- 

 sone, and Semur ; and of the Hotels de Ville of Saint 

 Antoine and Narbonne ; and in 1845 with the resto- 

 ration of the Church of Notre Daine, Paris. His 

 success here led to his appointment as architect of the 

 Abbey of St. Denis. In 1849 he restored the fortifi- 

 cations of Carcassone and superintended the eni belli -h- 

 nicnt of the Cathedral of Amiens. In 1853 he w is 

 appointed one of the three government inspec.or- 

 generals of religious edifices, in which capacity he 

 conducted the restoration, among others, of the Church 

 of Notre Dame, Chalons sur Marne ; of the Cathedral 

 of Laon, and of the Chateau Pierrefonds. In 1863 

 he was named professor of art, history, and aesthetics 

 in the reorganized School of Fine Arts, but soon re- 

 signed. During the siege of Paris, 1870-71, he aided 

 as an architectural engineer in the defence of his native 

 city, and was lieutenant-colonel. Meanwhile his re- 

 publican and free-thinking views, expounded through 

 the press, raised a clamor against him. He was, how- 

 ever, charged with the construction of the Protestant 

 Cathedral of Lausanne, Switzerland, and the restora- 

 tion, for the Comte de Paris, of the Chateau d'En. 

 But, owing to clerical opposition in 1874, he resigned 

 his position as inspector of diocesan edifices and 

 ceased to be architect of the Cathedrals of Rheims, 

 Amiens, Clermont, and Paris, though retaining the 

 office of architect of St. Denis. In 1874 he was 

 elected to the Chamber of Deputies as republican can- 

 didate for Montmartre. It was on his report as a 

 member of the Commission on International Exposi- 

 tions that the project of the palace of the Champs de 

 Mars and the Trocadero united by a gallery was 

 adopted for the Paris exposition of 1878. He latterly 

 occupied himself with questions of the fine arts, and, 

 among other things, proposed to multiply the statues 

 of great men in Paris, and advocated the use of the 

 Phrygian bonnet for the statues of Liberty. He died 

 suddenly at his country-house, near Lausanne, Sept. 

 17, 1879. Among his publications are Dictionnaire 

 raisonni de V architecture franc, aise de XI.-X VI. Siecle 

 (Paris, 1854-1868, 10 vols; a twice-crowned chef 

 (Tctttvre) ; Dictionnaire raisonne du mobilier Fran- 

 (//> de F Epoque carlovingieiine d la Renaissance 

 (1854-1875); Lettres sur la Sidle (1860); Entretiens 

 tur r Architecture ( \ 858-1 872) ; Cites et mines Ameri- 

 ctu'nfs (1862-63) ; ChapeHes de Notre. Dame de Paris 

 (1869); Habitationes modernes (1874-75); Histmrede 

 I habitation humaine (1875) ; L' Art ntsse (1877). 



VIRCHOW, RUDOLF, German pathologist and 

 publicist, was born Oct. 13, 1821, at Schievelbein, 

 Pomerania. In 1843 he graduated in medicine from 

 the University of Berlin, and began to lecture on 

 anatomy, being also prosector of the Charitd hospital. 

 In 1847 he established in Berlin, in conjunction with 

 Reinhardt, the Arclu'v filr patholoijlsche Anatomic mid 

 I'liyxiiilogie.undfur Klinische 3fe//em (from vol. xxi. by 

 Virchow alone). This periodical, now having over 80 

 volumes, is recognized as on 3 of the most authorita- 

 tive in the world. In 1847 Virchow, in connection 

 with Leubuscher, founded also the Medical Reform. 

 In 1848 he was deputed by the government to investi- 

 gate the nature of the typhoid epidemic in upper 



Silesia, and his report took high rank in sanitary 

 science. Aroused by the Revolution of 1848 he en- 

 tered the political arena as a liberal leader, and was 

 elected to the Prussian House of Deputies, but was 

 declared ineligible on account of his age. His liberal 

 politics also served to deprive him in 1849 of his lec- 

 tureship, whereupon he accepted a call to the chair of 

 pathological anatomy in the University of Wiirzburg, 

 where he obtained fame by his lectures on cellular 

 pathology. In 1852 he investigated, by request of the 

 Bavarian government, the famine in Spessart ; and in 

 1859, at request of the Swedish government, he 

 investigated in Sweden and Norway the causes of 

 leprosy ._ In 1856 he was recalled by the University 

 of Berlin. to assume the chair of pathological anatomy 

 and to become director of the Pathological Institute, 

 which he soon raised to the first rank among such 

 establishments. Since 1859 he has, as a member of 

 the city council of Berlin, devoted great attention to 

 matters of sanitary science. Since 1862, as member 

 of the Prussian House of Deputies, he has con- 

 sistently -opposed Bismarck's arbitrary policy, the 

 governmental centralization, and the military dom- 

 ination. Though he had objected to the constitution- 

 ality of the creation of the German Empire in 1880 

 he entered the Reichstag, where he soon became 

 fatuous by his coinage of the watchword "Kultur- 

 kampf." In the wars of 1866 and 1870 Prof. Vir- 

 chow was director of the German hospital service. In 

 18G9 he helped to organize the German Archaeological 

 Society at Innspruck, and became a leader in the Ber- 

 lin Anthropological Society. In 1873 he was chosen a 

 member of the Academy of Sciences. As one of the 

 instructors to the Berlin Workingmen's Union he 

 actively engaged in popularizing science. In 1872, a 

 German society having requested his withdrawal from 

 the French scientific societies, he declined, saying 

 a rupture of the scientific relations between the two 

 countries would be contrary to the interests of civiliza- 

 tion, of science, and of humanity. In 1879 he ren- 

 dered some assistance to Dr. Schliemann, in the Troad, 

 and he contributed the Preface and some appendices 

 to his Ilia* (1881), and two appendices to his Trofja 

 (1884). The cancerous disease that carried off Fred- 

 erick III. in 1888 brought Virchow prominently before 

 the world as the ultimate authority on the pathologi- 

 cal problem. It has become evident also that he 

 exerted a great political influence (in conjunction with 

 Geffcken and others) upon the liberal-minded but un- 

 fortunate emperor. 



In Germany, until the time of Virchow (1847), the 

 basic principles of medicine were a priori assumptions. 

 He claimed that facts and experiments were the only 

 admissible foundations for that science, no matter how 

 long it would take to collect them or establish them. 

 "Observations and experimentation only have perma- 

 nent value ; they will prove the fortress of scientific 

 medicine, the outworks of which are pathological 

 anatomy and clinical research." Schleidcn had dis- 

 covered the cell to be the fundamental basis of the 

 vegetable tissues, and Schwann had found it to be 

 the basis also of the animal tissues. A few geniuses, 

 from Vesalius and Paracelsus down to Virchow, had 

 slowly and gradually shaped the theory of diseases as 

 local anomalies. It remained for him, after a series 

 of observations and experiments, to proclaim his cei- 

 lular pathology as a consistent carrying out of the 

 theory. He announced the necessity of localizing 

 disease in the smallest composing element, or the cell. 

 Therapeutics, under the guidance of experimental 

 methods, have undergone important changes in the 

 light of this theory, and have become vastly more 

 efficient and local in application. Thus far every new 

 discovery of pathological facts has found a ready ex- 

 planation by the cellular theory and its methods, and 

 the largest proportion of recent progress in pathology 

 has been owing, directly or indirectly, to th_e adoption 

 of his doctrine of cell-growth. Important in its mflu- 



