EUROPE. 



369 



Holstein, in order to enforce the " execution " 

 of the federal laws. Denmark evacuated Hol- 

 stein, but declared that the entry of German 

 troops into Schleswig, a duchy not belonging 

 to the German confederation, would be regarded 

 by them as a declaration of war. The govern- 

 ments of Austria and Prussia, being anxious to 

 take the management of the question out of 

 the hands of the Federal Diet, entered into 

 special negotiations with Denmark, and when 

 these negotiations led to no result, assumed an 

 aggressive policy against Denmark, not as 

 members of the German Diet, but as Grand 

 Powers of Europe who had the right to compel 

 the Danes to execute all the stipulations of the 

 London Treaty of 1852. The entry of their 

 troops into Schleswig began the war, in which 

 the Danes were soon expelled from the whole 

 mainland of Schleswig. An attempt at con- 

 ciliation was made by the London Conference, 

 consisting of the plenipotentiaries of England, 

 France, Russia, Austria, Prussia, Sweden, Den- 

 mark, and the German Confederation. The 

 belligerents were induced to agree upon an 

 armistice, and also upon the proposition that 

 the whole of the duchy of Holstein and a por- 

 tion of Southern (German) Schleswig should be 

 forever separated from Denmark, and be made 

 an independent state. But the inability to 

 agree upon a line of demarcation led to the 

 breaking up of the Conference, and the renewal 

 of the war. The allied armies soon forced a 

 passage into the island of Alsen, and in a rapid 

 march occupied the whole of Jutland. The 

 Danes still hoped for aid from England, but 

 when the discussion of the Danish question in 

 the English Parliament revealed the fact that 

 neither the actual ministry nor the tories in- 

 tended to engage in war on any conditions 

 whatever, and it became equally apparent that 

 no other foreign aid was to be expected, the 

 Danes began to see that their case was hopeless, 

 and made overtures for peace. Plenipotenti- 

 aries of the three belligerent powers met at 

 Vienna in conference, and agreed upon the 

 cession by Denmark of the whole of the three 

 duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenberg. 

 (See ScHLEswiG-HoLSTEiN T , and LONDON CON- 

 FERENCE.) 



No other wars of importance took place in 

 Europe during the year 186-i. Insurrectionary 

 outbreaks against Austrian rule in Venetia and 

 Hungary were easily suppressed, and in Gal- 

 licia an intended outbreak was prevented by 

 the declaration of the state of siege. Russia 

 was carrying on war in Circassia and Central 

 Asia, France in Algeria and Mexico, England 

 in India, Spain in San Domingo and Peru, 

 England, France, and Holland in Japan; but 

 all these wars did not directly aifect Europe. 



Next in importance to the Schleswig-Holstein 

 war is the convention concluded on the 15th 

 of September between the Governments of 

 France and Italy, concerning the solution of 

 the Italian and especially the Roman question. 

 It is provided by this treaty that Rome shall 

 VOL. iv. 24 A 



be evacuated by the French troops within two 

 years, and the Government of Italy engages not 

 to allow any army, either of regular troops 

 or of volunteers, to enter the Papal territory. 

 No provision, however, is made in case that 

 the Romans, of their own accord, should rise 

 against the Papal rule, and annex themselves 

 to Italy. The majority of the Italian Parlia- 

 ment accepted the treaty, with the unconcealed 

 expectation that it would soon lead to the an- 

 nexation of both Rome and Venetia, and the 

 consummation of the political unity of Italy. 

 "With regard to Venetia/ the Italian Govern- 

 ment has the open support of France in its en- 

 deavors to force Austria into a transfer of this 

 province to Italy. The Prime Minister of 

 Italy, Gen. La Marmora, made in the Italian 

 Parliament the important remark, that the 

 Government would be able to adduce in favor 

 of a transfer of Venetia to Italy arguments 

 which even Austria would be unable to resist. 

 It was believed that this referred to diplomatic 

 negotiations which would give to Austria ample 

 indemnification for ceding Venetia, by means 

 of an annexation of some of the Christian 

 Provinces of Turkey. (See ITALY). 



The movement in favor of liberal reforms in 

 the administration of the European states was 

 very active. The Government of Russia has 

 especially distinguished itself by the inaugura- 

 tion of reformatory measures. In Prussia 

 Proper the effects of emancipation became 

 more and more apparent in every province of 

 the empire. The same boon of freedom which 

 had been granted to the Russian peasants in 

 1861 was conferred upon those of Poland in Feb- 

 ruary, 1864. The army and the administration 

 of justice were thoroughly reorganized. A de- 

 cree on public instruction in the state colleges 

 was designed to place these institutions on a 

 level with those in the most advanced coun- 

 tries of Europe. The preparations for intro- 

 ducing elective representative assemblies were 

 completed, and the inauguration of these as- 

 semblies will be one of the marked features 

 in the history of Russia during 1865. (See 

 RUSSIA.) 



Prince Conza, of the Danubian principalities, 

 is getting the reputation of being the most 

 radical reformer among the princes of Europe. 

 He has consummated the political union of the 

 two principalities of Moldavia and "Wallachia. 

 and thus constituted a new Christian country 

 which, though remaining tributary to Turkey, 

 is strong enough to resist any encroachments 

 and aggressions of the Mohammedan Govern- 

 ment. He has introduced general suffrage. 

 He has separated the Greek Church of the 

 principalities from the Patriarchate of Con- 

 stantinople, and introduced sweeping reforms 

 into the educational and judicial organization 

 of the country. He has made the peasants 

 owners of the soil which they have for cen- 

 turies tilled, and which until recently belonged 

 to a limited number of aristocratic families. 

 All this has been accomplished within the 



