EUROPE. 



S8fl 



mv>, what lie believed to be for tlie best in- 

 !' Spain. 



EURni'K. A remarkable feature of the 

 hiMory of Kiiropu during tlio year 1874 is tho 

 ce "I" grave international complications. 

 Tlio political Iniri/.ou was hardly darkened l.y 

 any war-cloud, and wherever one appeared to 

 lily dispersed. The command- 

 ing inilueiiiv which the new German Empire 

 tained in the international relations of 

 in 'i n-aii states has thus far been of a de- 

 cidedly peaceable character, and has manifest- 

 ly tended to strengthen the basis of a lasting 

 . The Parliaments paid but little atten- 

 tion to international questions, which were, on 

 the contrary, more than in former years, at- 

 tended to by the cabinets. The rapid progress 

 of railroads and telegraphs in every country of 

 Europe greatly strengthens the commercial re- 

 lations of the several nations, and the more 

 universal study of foreign languages and the 

 better knowledge of foreign literatures more 

 and more produce the feeling of a brother- 

 hood of nations. The international congresses 

 for literary, sanitary, humanitarian, and com- 

 mercial purposes, are increasing every year, 

 both in numbers and importance, and begin to 

 take a very prominent place in the history of 

 civilization. 



One of the most important international 

 congresses of the year met at Brussels, in pursu- 

 ance of an invitation from the Russian Govern- 

 ment, and had for its object the mitigation of 

 the horrors of war by a revision of the general 

 rules and customs of war. It was generally 

 admitted and agreed upon that the legitimate 

 aim of war was only the weakening of the ene- 

 my; that no unnecessary sufferings should be 

 imposed, upon the population of the hostile 

 country, and that the war should be limited 

 within as narrow boundaries as possible. At 

 the close of the year the resolutions passed by 

 the congress had not received the sanction of 

 the several governments, but intimation had 

 already been given that a new conference 

 would be called to complete the work of that 

 hold at Brussels. A considerable reluctance 

 to take part in the work of this congress was 

 shown by England, which feared for its as- 

 cendency at sea in case the negotiations should 

 be extended to naval warfare. It did not send 

 its representatives until it had received assur- 

 ances that the negotiations should he limited 

 to land operations, and when the congress had 

 completed its labor the representatives of Eng- 

 land did not sign the protocol. (See BELGIUM.) 



An international postal congress, which met 

 at Bern in compliance with an invitation from 

 the Prussian Government, called into lite a 

 postal convention embracing a large portion 

 if tho globe. The congress was attended hy 

 the representatives of nineteen states, and the 

 convention as proposed by the congress was 

 adhered to by all the states of Europe except 

 France, which made it dependent upon its 

 ratification by the National Assembly, by 



Egypt, and the United States of America. 

 Mternational postal association is to last 

 for three yearn, and every third year a new in- 

 ternational congress is to meet to revise and 

 develop tho terms of tho convention. 'J he 

 chief object of tin- convention is to introduce 

 a uniform postage for all mailuble matter. 

 (See 8wiT/.Kni.AM>.) 



The attention of tho governments and the 

 people of Germany was chiefly directed to a 

 consolidation of the new empire. The greatest 

 obstacle to the rapid progress of the work of 

 consolidation must be found in the continuing 

 conflict between the governments of Prussia 

 and other German states and the Roman Cath- 

 olic Church. The determined refusal of the 

 Prussian bishops to submit to the new laws 

 concerning Church affairs led to the arrest of 

 several of them, but at the close of the year 

 neither the bishops nor the governments showed 

 the least inclination to recede from the position 

 taken. The extraordinary excitement which 

 the continuance of this conflict produced in tho 

 Catholic districts led to an attempt upon the 

 life of Prince Bismarck by Kullmann, a young 

 Catholic mechanic. The deed was promptly 

 and energetically denounced by all organs of 

 the German Catholics, but widened the breach 

 already dividing the Catholics from the remain- 

 der of the population. The German Reichstag, 

 in which the National Liberals had a large plu- 

 rality, lacking only a few votes of an absolute 

 majority, vigorously supported most of the bills 

 introduced by the Imperial Government for 

 promoting the consolidation of the empire. A 

 determined opposition was, however, made by 

 the majority of the Reichstag to the army and 

 press laws proposed by the Government; but 

 in either case, the ministerial crisis produced 

 by the clash of opinion was soon ended by a 

 compromise. Prince Bismarck continued to di- 

 rect the affairs of the empire, supported by the 

 confidence of the Emperor and the majority of 

 the Reichstag, and one of his foremost oppo- 

 nents, Count Arnim, who was German embas- 

 sador in France, had dared to disobey the in- 

 structions of the imperial chancellor, to coun- 

 teract his policy, and to take official documents 

 from the archives of the embassy, was prompt- 

 ly brought to trial and sentenced to three 

 months' imprisonment. In Alsace-Lorraine 

 the opposition to a permanent union with Ger- 

 many remained unsubdued, and the majority 

 of the delegates whom the new Reichsland had 

 elected for tho German Parliament returned 

 home after having entered their protest against 

 the reunion with Germany. The Imperial Gov- 

 ernment feels, however, confident that the re- 

 organization of the public schools, and the ob- 

 vious advantages of the commercial union of 

 the Reichsland with the other German states, 

 will ere long overcome all opposition. The 

 confidence of tho Imperial Government in the 

 final reconciliation of the population of Alsace- 

 Lorraine is so great that it complied with the 

 petition of tho three district diets of the Reichs- 



