340 



GEOGRAPHICAL EXPLORATIONS AND PROGRESS FOR 1874. 



specimens of the fauna and flora of the high 

 latitudes. Commander A. H. Markham, of the 

 Sultan, will also take part in the command. 

 Captain Nares has the experience of the arctic 

 voyage of 1852-54, in which he distinguished 

 himself on board the Resolute. The conditions 

 are favorable for a prosperous voyage, accord- 

 ing to the accounts of Captain David Gray, 

 who, making his observations from the coast 

 of Greenland, concludes that nearly all the ice 

 was driven out of the arctic basin last sum- 

 mer. The whaling-steamer Bloodhound has 

 been purchased, and is destined to be the prin- 

 cipal vessel of the squadron. The expedition 

 is not to start until June, 1875. The Polaris 

 reached a latitude of 82 16'. Living objects 

 were observed in the highest latitudes attained, 

 in a not-decreasing frequency. Musk-oxen 

 were shot in latitude 81 38'. Flies, beetles, 

 butterflies, and mosquitoes, were found, and 

 seventeen diiferent kinds of birds were killed, 

 in latitude 82. The English expedition will 

 consist of about a hundred officers and men, 

 and will be provided for a long cruise. The 

 consideration of the non-success of the Austro- 

 Huugarian expeditition, and of the results 

 attained by the Polaris, will induce them to 

 choose the route of the latter vessel up Smith 

 Sound, as the only practicable way to the pole. 

 THE OCEANS. The United States steamer 

 Tnscarora sailed from San Francisco December 

 20, 1873, to make soundings over a line from 

 San Francisco to San Diego, and thence on the 

 line of a great circle to Honolulu, to the Bonin 

 Islands, and to Yokohama, to ascertain the 

 most feasible route for a telegraphic cable across 

 the Pacific Ocean. This voyage has yielded 

 important hydrographical results, in addition 

 to the satisfactory accomplishment of its spe- 

 cial purpose. At 50 miles from the coast of 

 California a depth of 2,200 fathoms was found ; 

 this was the deepest sounding made before ar- 

 riving at San Diego. The ocean's bed declined 

 on an average 90 feet to a mile to the depth of 

 1,900 fathoms, 115 miles out from San Diego. 

 Thence to latitude 23 10' north, the point of the 

 greatest depth, 3,053 fathoms, the slope is three 

 feet to a mile ; and thence to Honolulu, a dis- 

 tance of 400 miles, the upward inclination aver- 

 ages 45 feet per mile. On the passage from 

 Honolulu to Yokohama, six submarine moun- 

 tainous elevations were crossed, with level pla- 

 teaus between. The average depth was 2,450 

 fathoms. The course from Cape Flattery to the 

 Aleutian Islands, passed over between October 

 17 and October 30, 1873, showed a rapid shoal- 

 ing off Cape Flattery, from 1,500 to only 600 

 fathoms depth ; and from that point up to the 

 last cast, latitude 54 north, longitude 153 west, 

 where the depth was 2,534 fathoms, there was 

 a gradual declension of one fathom to the mile. 

 The squndings from Yokohama to Tanaga Island 

 showed, for 1,000 miles, depths ranging from 

 300 to 2,270 fathoms. A remarkable depres- 

 sion was found, latitude 52 06', longitude 171 

 15' east, where the depth was 4,037 fathoms. 



.The entire results go to corroborate the esti- 

 'mate of 2,500 fathoms as the average depth of 

 the Pacific, based upon the theory of the earth- 

 quake wave. Throughout the survey careful 

 observations were directed to the ocean-cur- 

 rents. The results attained strengthen the 

 theory of ocean circulation, and supply impor- 

 tant data for the hydrography of the Pacific 

 Ocean. Along the shores of Kamtchatka and 

 the Kurile Islands a counter-current was ob- 

 served setting to the southwest, reaching to 

 longitude 164 east, with a surface tempera- 

 ture of 49 Fahr. There they came upon the 

 Kamtchatka current, a branch of the Japan 

 Stream setting through Behring Strait, which 

 is here about 350 miles in width. From 174 

 eastward flowed the cold Behring Strait cur- 

 rent. From the observations of the ocean- 

 currents the following deductions were arrived 

 at : The Kuro Siwo, or Japan current, takes 

 an easterly course toward the American coast, 

 with its northern limit extending to the south- 

 ern shores of Vancouver Island. The same 

 stream passes down to the southward, in what 

 is called the California cold current. Below 

 this flowed an under-current, setting to the 

 northwest, which reached the surface in lati- 

 tude 50 north, and then set to the north- 

 ward, along the British -American shores, from 

 there gradually turning to the westward. In 

 latitude 53 30' north, longitude 157 west, the 

 current took a southeasterly course at a depth 

 of five fathoms ; nearer the islands the current 

 was to the southwest and close to the islands 

 to the westward. It was conjectured that a 

 part of the water taken to the northwest by 

 the under-current returns to the northern 

 branch of the Japan current in longitude 157 

 west, passing southward along the western 

 shore of America as part of the surface-cur- 

 rent, and that the part west of longitude 157 

 west, setting toward the southwest, passes as 

 an under-current beneath the Japan stream. 

 A rapid fall in temperature, from 57 Fahr. to 

 47, within a few miles in the Ounimak Pass, 

 revealed that the northwest shores of the 

 Aleutian Islands are washed by the Behring 

 Strait current. The northern route for a tel- 

 egraph-cable, as indicated by the results of the 

 investigations, would be 4,200 miles in length, 

 while the southern bourse must be 6,000 miles 

 in length. The difficulties of the northern course 

 are a sudden declivity of the Aleutian Islands, 

 as well as frequent fogs, and the cold and un- 

 friendly climate, embarrassing to workmen in 

 laying and repairing the cable. In the course 

 from Cape Flattery to Atcha, in the Aleutian 

 Islands, off" Cape Flattery, the depth suddenly 

 decreased from 1,500 to less than 600 fathoms. 

 From that point as far as the last sounding, in 

 latitude 54 north, longitude 153 west, there 

 was a gradual decrease of one fathom a mile, 

 the last depth being 235 fathoms. 



The voyages of the English ship Challenger, 

 a frigate-built steamship of about 1,500 tons, 

 commanded by Captain G. S. Nares, R. N., 



