PREFACE. 



THE year 1875 presented generally throughout the world a peaceful aspect, 

 although conflicts of principles were continued and hostilities commenced in 

 some localities, which may yet involve the destinies of vast populations. The 

 most extensive of these conflicts between some of the Governments of Europe 

 and the Roman Catholic Church still continued, and in Germany, Switzerland, 

 and Italy, the supremacy of the state was asserted and maintained without 

 relaxation. The measures of each party to the contest and the documents issued 

 are herein fully presented. In Spain, the heir of the late Queen has become 

 established on the throne, and the Carlist forces have been defeated and have 

 disappeared. In France, a constitutional republic has been established, and is in 

 peaceful and successful operation. In the provinces of Turkey hostilities have 

 broken out which have attracted the attention of the leading Governments of 

 Europe. Incessant efforts have been made to suppress them without success, 

 lest they should lead to the downfall of Turkey in Europe, and a general war 

 over her remains. All these extensive subjects, and the important questions 

 involved in them, and the circulars expressive of the views and measures of 

 the Governments, are fully set forth in these pages. 



In the United States peace has everywhere prevailed. The difficulties in 

 Louisiana, in Arkansas, and in Mississippi, were soon adjusted, and the public 

 attention has been engrossed by the embarrassed state of commercial affairs, 

 with preparations for a Centennial Exhibition, and the numerous other measures 

 appearing at the entrance upon a new career. 



The details of American affairs embrace the finances of the Federal Govern- 

 ment ; the results of its systems of revenue and taxation ; the banking system ; 

 the currency, and the effects of irredeemable paper money ; the commerce, manu- 

 factures, and general state of the country ; the finances of the States ; their 

 debts and resources ; their educational, charitable, and reformatory institutions ; 

 the various political conventions assembled during the year, with their nomi- 

 nations and platforms ; the results of elections ; also, commercial and financial 

 conventions and their proceedings ; the important questions before Congress, 

 such as specie payments, expansion or contraction, presidential elections, etc., 

 with debates and decisions of that body ; the proceedings of State Legislatures 

 on the various local matters of importance the extension of railroads and tele- 

 graphs, and all those improvements involved in the rapid progress of the coun- 

 try. These are contained, with ample details, in these pages. 



A special article is devoted to the affairs of every foreign country, which 



