45 



ARABLE LAND. 



ARABLE LAND. 



466 



in portions of greater or less width, with a double furrow between 

 them somewhat like beds in a garden. Sometimes two furrow slices 

 are set up against each other, which is called ridging or boutiny ; the 

 land then is entirely laid in high ridges and deep furrows, by which it 

 is more exposed to the influence of the atmosphere and kept drier ; 

 this is generally done before winter, especially in stiff wet soils. Some- 

 times two or more ridges are made on each side, forming narrow 

 stitches. When the ground is to be ploughed without being laid in 

 lands or stitches, and all the ridges inclined one way, the mould-board 

 of the plough is shifted at each turn from one side to the other. The 

 plough which admits of this is called a turn icrat plough, and is in 

 general use in Kent, and in many parts of the Continent, where the 

 subsoil is dry and the land not too moist. In most other situations 

 the ground is laid in lands, and the mould-board of the plough is fixed 

 on the right side. When grass laud or stubble is ploughed, care must 

 be taken to bury the grass and weeds completely, and the slice cut off 

 by the plough must be turned over entirely, which is best done by 

 making the width of the furrow greater than the depth. When 

 the grass and weeds are rotten, and the ground is ploughed to pul- 

 verise it, a narrow deep furrow is best ; the earth ploughed up is 

 laid against the side of the preceding ridge, which forms a small 

 furrow between the top of the ridges, well adapted for the seed to 

 lodge in and to be readily covered with the harrows. 



Nothing has divided both practical and theoretical agriculturists 

 more than the question whether the laud should be ploughed deep or 

 shallow ; but a very slight attention to the purposes for which land ia 

 ploughed, and to the nature of the soil, will reconcile these apparently 



contradictory opinions. A deep, rich, and stiff soil can never be moved 

 too much nor too deep : deep ploughing brings up rich earth, admits 

 the air and water readily, and gives room for the roots to shoot, whilst 

 the rich compact soil affords moisture and nourishment. Wherever 

 trees are to be planted, the ground should be stirred as deep as pos- 

 sible, even in a poor soil : for grass and corn, however, this is not 

 always prudent ; for though their roots traverse a considerable depth of 

 soil, yet the principal portion of them terminates in the surface soil ; 

 and in addition to this there is, in reference to some plants, an ad- 

 vantage in preserving a firm texture of subsoil. 



Whenever the soU below a certain depth is of an inferior quality, 

 there can be no use in bringing it up, until by tillage and land draining 

 it has been unproved; and where the soil is light and porous, the 

 bottom had, as we have said, for many plants better not be broken. 

 In such soils, indeed, it is usual rather to attempt the artificial con- 

 solidation of the land than to loosen it; and to this end the land- 

 presser or press-drill is used. This instrument consists of two very 

 heavy cast-iron wheels, a a, fy. 2, with angular edges, set on a common 

 axle, at a distance from each other equal to the width of the furrows, 

 and a lighter wheel, b, to keep the instrument vertical. 



It is drawn by a horse immediately after the plough ; pressing two 

 furrows at once, and going twice over each furrow, or if it follows two 

 ploughs, once only. It leaves the land in regular drills, and the seed 

 sown by hand falls into the bottom of the drills, and is covered by the 

 harrows. When the plants come up they appear in regular parallel 

 rows. 



The great object in ploughing land is to divide it, expose every part 



Fig. 2 



Pres Drill or Lnd Presscr. 



of it to the influence of the elements, and destroy every plant or weed 

 but those which are sown in it. To do this perfectly requires several 

 ploughing", with certain interval*", and during that time no crop can be 

 upon the land. This i.< the real ue of fallows, and not, as was once 

 supposed, to allow the land to rest ; on the contrary, it ought then to 

 have the least repose. 



Where the soil is good, with a porous subsoil, the greatest care 

 should be taken not to go too deep ; but where the subsoil is compact 

 and impervious to water, but not wet for want of outlet or draining, it 

 is useful to stir the soil to a great depth, but without bringing it to the 

 surface, which may be done by a plough without a mould-board, fol- 

 lowing a common plough in the same furrow. This is an excellent 

 auxiliary to draining, at the same time keeping a reservoir of moisture, 

 which in dry weather ascends hi vapours through the soil and refreshes 

 the roots. 



The mode in which the soil is prepared most perfectly for the recep- 

 tion of the seed, is best shown by following the usual operations on 

 fallows. After the harvest, the plough is set to work, and the stubble 

 ploughed in. The winter's frost and snow mellow it, while the stubble 

 and weeds rot below. In spring, as soon as the weather permits, it is 

 ploughed again, the first ridges being turned over as they were before : 

 this completes the decomposition of the roots and weeds. It is then 

 stirred with harrows or other instruments, which tear up the roots 

 which remained, and some of these not being easily destroyed, are 

 carefully gathered and burnt, or put in a heap to ferment and rot, a 

 [Kirtion of quicklime being added. Another ploughing and stirring 

 follows, at Mum- interval, till the whole ground is mellow, pulverised, 

 and free from weeds ; manure is put on, if required, and immediately 

 spread and ploughed in ; the land is then prepared for the seed. 



This has been the method universally followed by all industrious 

 DtUMndnMn from the oldest times. The Romans had names for each 

 of the ploughings : the first was fran>/trc, the next rertere, the third 

 r'fri,i;irre, and the fourth ret-ertere ; more ploughings were often given, 

 and in modern agriculture the direction of the third ploughing is some- 

 times changed across the old furrows, at a right, or acute angle, as 



ARTS AJJD SCI. DIV. VOL. I. 



Virgil recommends (' Oeorgica,' i. 98), by which the earth is still better 

 divided and mixed. The best modern practice does, however, now so 

 far depart from the ancient model, that a greater portion of cultivation 

 is generally effected before winter. The practice of autumn cultivation 

 of stubbles lias greatly increased of late years. A thorough cleansing 

 of stubble land, and even the manuring of it previous to the last 

 ploughing before winter, is now often accomplished. The soil is then 

 left in such a state, that it only needs a stirring and harrowing in the 

 spring, to be ready for most of the spring-sown crops. 



Various instruments have been invented to stir the earth and mix it, 

 without so often using the plough, and also to loosen and separate roots 

 and weeds ; of these the principal are, the cultivator or scarifier, which 

 enters but a few inches into the ground, and moves a great surface by 

 means of tines, or iron teeth of various constructions. The whole 

 instrument is made of iron : a a, the frame ; It, the beam ; c c, rods by 

 which it is drawn, the horses being attached by a hook at the point d ; 

 e f , the handles ; ///, different-shaped shares and tinea to be used 

 according to the state of the soil ; g <j g, contrivances by which the teeth 

 are fixed to the frame at any required distance from each other, and 

 lengthened or shortened; h h h, three wheels to regulate the depth of 

 the ground moved. By raising the beam and fixing it higher or lower 

 on the piece (i), by means of an iron pin passed through the different 

 holes, the whole instrument is raised or depressed in the ground. 

 Fig. 3 represents a simple form of this tool. Coleman, Bentall, 

 Ransorae, and many other manufacturers, have better and more 

 efficient implements of the kind. 



This instrument divides the soil, but does not turn it over ; it is well 

 calculated to destroy roots and weeds, and let in the air ; but, evidently, 

 is only adapted to tolerably loose and mellow soils, where there are no 

 large stones. 



An ingenious harrow or cultivator has been invented by Finlayson, 

 which rakes the weeds out of the ground, and throws them on the sur- 

 face without clogging the instrument ; it is excellent in light soils (Jig. 4). 



When the soil turned up by the plough is in large hard lumps, a 

 roller, smooth, ribbed, or toothed, is drawn over the land to break 



n u 



