Ill 



IBM 



AROAND LAMP. 



618 



Contr. Ariatocr., p. 41-). In th time of laoeratea, when the 

 dokimaaia had ceased, or become a dead letter, and profligacy of life 

 WM no bar to admission into the council, ita moral influence was still 

 such aa to be aa effectual restraint on the conduct of ita own niemlwn 

 (laocr. 'Areon., 1 p. 147). In the corruption of manner* and utter 

 degradation of character which prevailed at Athena, after it fell under 

 the nVmimatttm of MnorV^ 1 *, we an not surprised to find that the 

 uniMfl partook of the character of the timea, and that an Areopagite 

 might be a mark for the finger of acorn (Athennus, 4, 04). Under the 

 Roman* it retained at least some formal authority, and Cicero applied 

 lor and obtained a decree of the council, requesting Cratippus, the 

 philosopher, to sojourn at Athena, and instruct the youth < 1'lut. ; Vit. 

 {X^; t . ;>4 >. it long after remained in existence, somewhat superior in 

 dignity and perhaps equal in power, to a modern court of aldermen in 

 municipal corporation. The old qualifications for admission were 

 neglected in the days of ita degeneracy, nor is it easy to aay what were 

 substituted for them. Later times saw even a stranger to Athena 



We shall conclude this article with a few words on the forms observed 

 by the council in ita proceedings aa a court of justice in criminal 

 canes. The court waa held in an unenclosed space on the Areopagus, 

 and in the open air ; which custom, indeed, it had in common with 

 all other court* in cases of murder, if we may trust the oration C Do 

 Ode Herodi*,' p. 180) attributed to Antiphou. The Areopagites were 

 in later times, according to Vitmvius, accommodated with the shelter 

 of a roof. The prosecutor and defendant stood on two separate rude 

 blocks of atone (Paus. 1, 28), and, before the pleadings commenced, 

 were required each to take an oath with circumstances of peculiar 

 solemnity ; the former, that he charged the accused party justly ; the 

 defendant, that he waa innocent of the charge. At a certain stage of 

 the proceedings, the Utter was allowed to withdraw his plea, with the 

 penalty of banishment from his country (Dem. ' Contr. Aristocr.,' p. 

 642-3). In their speeches both parties were restricted to a simple 

 statement, and dry argument on the merits of the case, to the exclusion 

 of all irrelevant matter, and of those various contrivances known under 

 the general name panukue (irapwrmi/))), to affect the paasions of the 

 judges, so shamelessly allowed and practised in the other courts (Or. 

 Lycurg., p. 149, 12-25 ; Lucian. ' Gymn.,' c. 19). Of the existence of 

 the rule in question in this court, we have a remarkable proof hi an 

 apology of Lysias for an artful violation of it hi his Areopagitic oration 

 (p. 112, 5). Advocates were allowed, at least in later times, to both 

 parties. Many commentators on the New Testament have placed St. 

 Paul as a defendant at the bar of the Areopagus, on the strength of a 

 passage in the Acts of the Apostles (xvii. 19). The apostle was indeed 

 taken by the inquisitive Athenians to the hill, and there required to 

 expound and defend his new doctrines for the entertainment of his 

 auditors ; but, in the narrative of Luke, there is no hint of an arraign- 

 ment and trial 



Some of our readers may perhaps be surprised that we have made 

 no mention of a practice so often quoted as peculiar to the Areopagites, 

 that of holding their sessions in the darkness of night. The truth is, 

 that we are not persuaded of the fact. It is, indeed, noticed more 

 than once by Lucian, and perhaps by some other of the later 

 writers; but it is not supported, we believe, by any sufficient 

 authority, whilst there is strong presumptive evidence against the 

 common opinion. It was, as it should seem, no unusual pastime 

 with the Athenians to attend the trials on the Areopagus as spectators 

 (Lya. Contr. Theomn.,' p. 117, 10). We suspect that few of this 

 light-hearted people would have gone at an unseasonable hour in 

 the dark to hear such speeches aa were there delivered, and see 

 nothing. Perhaps there may be no bettor foundation for the story, 

 than there is for the notion, till lately ao generally entertained, that 

 the same gloomy custom was in favour with the celebrated Vehmic 

 tribunal of Westphalia. 



AUKS <'A/n>'). the god of war and strife among the Greeks, generally 

 considered aa corresponding to the Roman Mars. Homer makes him a 

 native of Thrace, and others consider him the father of several 

 Thracian riven and race*. It i* therefore highly probable that he 

 waa the god particularly worshipped by some northern people, though 

 nearly all other traces of this circumstance have diaappeared. The 

 Scythian deity known to Herodotus as the god of war, whom he calls 

 by the Greek term .dm (iv. 82), was worshipped under the form of 

 an iron scimitar, to which horse* and other quadruped* were annually 

 offered ; and also every hundredth man of captive* taken in war. In 

 the later genealogy of the gods he waa considered the son of Zeus and 

 Hera (Jupiter and Juno), and, aa such, took part hi the war against 

 the giants, and slew Mimas and Pelorus. In the contest with Typhon 

 he fled with the other gods into Egypt, and was changed into a fish. 

 He was not more successful In his engagement with Otus anil Kphialton, 

 the children of Alotts, by whom he was Imprisoned for thirteen months. 

 To a still later period we must refer the murder of Halirrhotiin. mid 

 hi* trial before the court of Areopagus, a* well a* his combat with 

 Hercules. 



It is a curious circumstance that the Greeks, though constantly 

 <ngagd in war, should have paid little attention to the worship of 

 Are*. There were few temples erected to his honour in Greece. 

 Geronthm, a village of Laconia, had a temple and grove where a yearly 

 festival was celebrated, to which no female WM admitted (Paus. iJ. 



22) : there waa another on the road from Amyclro to Therapne in 

 Laoonia (iii. 19), and a third at Athens (i. 8). Though, as we have 

 remarked, Are* seam* to be a Thracian god, yet the clement of the 

 word Ares i* an integral part of the Greek language, and the word 

 which denoted beet and bravest, ari*to* (tfamt), is the superlative 

 of ant. The Sanscrit art, nom. art*, signifies an enemy. In early 

 timea human sacrifices were offered to him by the Lacedtemouiaiu), 

 dogs by the Carians, and asses by the Scythians (Apollod. ' Fnuniu* 

 p. 894, ed. Heyne). 



It is difficult to aay what distinctive character ancient artiste wished 

 to give to this god, because no Greek state honoured him as their 

 principal deity. We have no distinct account of his statue* by 

 menes and Scopas in the temple at Athens, but we can collect, from 

 aome that have been preserved, and also from heads of the K 

 gems, that the following is the general character under which he is 

 represented. The expression is stern and thoughtful ; firm nervous 

 muscles, a strong fleshy neck, and nhort bristly hair ; the mouth is 

 small, the lips full, and the eyes deep-set. It is only in later 

 that he appears with a strong beard as the Roman Marspiter. : 

 represented always as a young man in the prime of vigorous strength. 

 When not naked, his dress is a chlamys (tayum). See a beautiful head 

 on a gem (Millin, P. Or. 20) ; a standing figure on a basso-rilievo (Pio 

 Clem. iv. 7) ; head on the coins of the Mamertini (Magnaui, iv. 31 

 on the Denarii of Fonteius Capito (Patin. p. 114). In later art he 

 wears only the helmet In groups he is often figured with Apl>; 

 On gems he occurs aa the giant-slayer : but in sculpture he is seldom 

 represented as a combatant or engaged in strife. Hirt, ' Bildende 

 Kunst, 1 1888 ; MttUer, ' Archaologie der Kunst,' 872, Ac. 



Man or Mavori (called Mamen in the Oscan language), the god of 

 war among the Romans, was regarded by them as identical with tin- 

 Greek Am, but there can be little doubt he had originally a dit' 

 origin. He was also called Marspater or Marspiter (OelL, v. 1 - 

 was worshipped in peace under the name of Quirinus, mid in war 

 under that of Gradivus. There was a temple in Rome sacred to 

 Quiriuus, and another outside the city, in which he was worshipped 

 under the name of Gradivus, on the Appian Way, near the gate 

 Capena (Servius on '^Eneid,' i. 296). Among the Romans Man 

 was honoured next to Jupiter. According to tradition, Romulus wa 

 the son of Mars, by Rea Silvia; and it was perhaps owing to his being 

 the tutelar god of the Romans that the husbandmen were accustomed, 

 according to Cato (' De Re Rust.,' c. 141), to present their prayers to 

 this deity, when they purified their fields by performing the sacrifice 

 called luorelaurilia, which consisted of a pig, a sheep, anil a Imll. He 

 is also called by Cato, Mars Silvanus (c. 88]. According to a principle 

 in Roman mythology, by which a mole and a female deity are : 

 supposed to preside over the same object of fear or desire, the Romans 

 had a goddess of war called BEI.LONA. 



A round shield (anrile), which was supposed to have been the shield 

 of Mars, is said to have fallen from heaven during the reign of Nmoa, 

 .UK! was entrusted to the care of the Salii, the priests of 

 Eleven other shields were made like it, in order that it might not lx> 

 stolen. 



The first month (Martius) of the old Roman year, which consisted 

 of ten months only, derived its name from this god. 



Mars is generally represented with a beard, but in other respects like 

 the Greek Ares, and is frequently placed in the same group with 

 Rea Silvia, In the Townley Collection in the British Museum, on the 

 base of a candelabrum of Roman workmanship, there i* a group of 

 three little figures carrying the armour of Mars, and the helmet lioruu 

 on the shoulders of one of the figures, is marked in front with the 

 head of a ram, which animal was consecrated by the Romans to Mars 

 a* well as to Mercury. 



ARGAND LAMP, so called from the name of its inventor, who waa 

 a native of France. This lamp has been made of various form 

 the different purposes of reading and of diffusing general light. In the 

 simplest form of the Argand reading-lamp, there is a reservoir from 

 which oil descends gradually to a cistern, and in thence ci. 

 pipe to the burner containing the wick, placed Let ween t\\o t'ui 

 immersed in oil. The wick risen a little above the upjx-r surface of 

 the burner; there is a glass chimney, the lower jmrt of wl, 

 enlarged, in order to increase the current of air upwards; the ehimney 

 reata on a gallery or stand, where it is kept in ita place by four 

 By turning the gallery, the wick is either raised or lowered. Tli. 

 is hollow and cylindrical, and receives a current of air both internally 

 and externally ; the former enters through open work near the bottom 

 of the burner, and the latter at the gallery : this indeed constitutes the 

 peculiar principle and merit of the lamp. There is a abode surround- 

 ing the light, so as to prevent its acting too powerfully on t] 

 Below the reservoir is a handle, which, when the lamp is burning, is 

 depressed, to allow of a supply of oil to descend into the cistci i 

 which is raised to cut it oft" when the lamp U not in use. A small i-up 

 is screwed below the burner, to receive any drops of oil whk-b 

 fall. The internal mechanism is thus arranged : The reservoir 

 nates in a neck, which screws into the upper part of the 

 when it is unscrewed and inverted, the oil is inured into the reservoir 

 through a small hole ; by moving a small handle or 1 

 is made to cover this hole and prevent the oil from running out, anil 

 the reservoir is then screwed into its place, and the handle depremted 



