657 



ARTHANITIN. 



ARTIFICIAL FLOWERS. 



rock, or hard formations, it is necessary to comminute the latter before 

 the scoops can remove the materials ; and this object is effected by 

 raising, and then suddenly letting fall, the chisel, or cutting tool, 

 which will of course descend with a force proportionate to its own 

 weight, and the distance it has travelled. Very great precautions are 

 necessary to guard against the rupture of the rods when the depth 

 is great ; and a number of ingenious contrivances have been introduced 

 by MM. Degousse"e and (Eiiyenhausen for the purpose of diminishing 

 the weight thus cast upon the cutting tool, descriptions and illustra- 

 tions of which will be found in Degoussee's ' Guide du Sondeur ; ' 

 Burat's ' Geologic applique'e a la recherche des Mine'raux utiles ; ' and 

 to a ' Treatise on Well-digging and Boring," in Mr. Weale's Rudimentary 

 series. Of late years also M. Kind, a German engineer of considerable 

 eminence, has introduced a modification of the boring tools to be used 

 in deep wells, of which a detailed description will be found in the 

 ' Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers,' for July, 

 1854 : and it appears from the experience obtained in several cases 

 that the changes thus suggested have materially diminished the danger 

 attending the rupture of the rods in consequence of their great weight, 

 and of the vibrations to which they are usually exposed. The diffi- 

 culties thus overcome are, however, very far from being the only 

 important ones attached to this class of operations ; for in the case of 

 the boring now in progress, under the orders of M. Kind himself, at 

 Passy, the advance of the work has been seriously impeded by the 

 collapsing of the tubes, through the pressure of the running sands 

 traversed. A similar accident hag likewise taken place at Ostend ; 

 and even in the case of the celebrated well of Crenelle the supply of 

 water, or the efficiency of the well, is at times seriously affected by the 

 movements of the finer particles of the permeable water-bearing 

 stratum, to such an extent indeed as from time to time to render it 

 necessary to interrupt the distribution of the water in order to clean 

 the tubes. In such cases as those in which the boring is originally 

 carried through strata likely to yield waters of inferior or objectionable 

 quality, as in marsh lands, or in the neighbourhood of the sea, special 

 precautions are required to keep out those waters ; and it is customary 

 to employ in such cases cast-iron pipes. In traversing still deeper strata 

 furnishing waters which it may be necessary to exclude, wrought-iron, 

 or even copper pipes, are used. The mode in which these details are 

 executed has the greatest influence upon the success of the operations, 

 and they require a very extensive practical acquaintance with the 

 various conditions of the loose strata, which so strangely modify the 

 resistance to be dealt with. On this score also the boring of Artesian 

 wells is strictly speaking an empirical art, just as it is on the score of 

 the uncertainty with respect to the continuity of the underground 

 strata ; and it is for these reasons that the experience of an intelligent, 

 tl, well-borer is a surer guide in such undertakings than any 

 i IK- if jili- tract philosophical reasoning. 



Notwithstanding the disappointment encountered in the above cited 

 c i-i - ni tin: Southampton, Calais, Highgate, and Harwich wells, which 

 were undertaken mainly upon the recommendations of theoretical 

 geologists, the reader who would become acquainted with the gener.il 

 conditions affecting the supply of Artesian wells must still consult the 

 works of that class of writers. The most reliable information upon the 

 t is to be found, in addition to the works already mentioned, in 

 He"ricart de Thury's ' Considerations sur la Cause du Jallissement des 

 Eaux des Puitw fords,' Paris, 1829; Buckland's ' Bridgewater Treatise 

 on (Jeology and Mineralogy,' London, 1837 ; and Prestwich's treatise 

 ' On the Water-bearing Strata of London,' London, 1851. Delabeche's 

 ' Geological Observer ' contains some valuable remarks upon the sub- 

 ject ; and the treatise inserted by M. Arago in the ' Annuaire du 

 Bureau des Longitudes,' for 1836, may still be referred to with 

 advantage. 



AKTHAMTI.V (('VCI.AMIX). A non-azotised crystalline body, ex- 

 tracted from the root of the Cyclamen Enro/nrtim. Its taste is bitter 

 and astringent. It requires 500 parts of water for solution, is in- 

 ulnlile in ether, but dissolves easily in alcohol. Administered inter- 

 nally, it acts as a purgative and emetic. Its composition is unknown. 

 ARTHRITIS. [Goer.] 



ARTICLE, the name given by modern grammarians to the two 

 tittle adjectives (A< and an in the English language, and to words of 

 like iii]]xirt in other modern languages, the former being called the 

 di'fiiiitc, the latter the indefinite article. We do not attempt a more 

 l>hil"ophical definition, because the separation of these words from the 

 adjectives of language, whether pronouns or not, appears to 

 nl upon no very accurate principle; and the distribution of the 

 ]>arts of speech would perhaps not be the less philosophical, if the 

 so-called articles were restored to their proper place. The indefinite 

 article nn ia nnly a corruption of the adjective one, or, as our ancestors 

 M ; and a is a still more violent corruption of the same word. 

 Thu in 'icrinau fin is at once equivalent to our one and to an. In the 

 same way the Krench tin, Italian uno, Sjanish nno, &c., are evidently 

 derived from the Latin units. On the other hand, the definite article 

 will appear, on the slightest consideration, to be a corrupted demon- 

 strative pronoun. The term article or afSpov (a joint) was invented by 

 the Greek grammarians, but as used by them it is only applied to the 

 t article, and also to what, by modern grammarians, is called 

 rnijili.itically the relative (who). Nor is there any inconsistency in 

 applying the same term to these two notions, which will be found on 

 ARTS AND SCI. DIV. VOL. !. 



examination to have a common origin. The element TO (to) of the 

 Greek language, corresponding in power to our word this, was em- 

 ployed perhaps originally to denote a physical object pointed out at the 

 tune by some action of the body ; secondly, to an object mentioned 

 just before, and thus mentally present both to speaker and hearer; 

 or, lastly, to an object forthwith to be brought before the hearer's 

 mind. In the second case we are likely to have a repetition of the 

 defining particle, as : " I gave you the book which, you asked for," or, 

 what is equally good, except in rhythm, " I gave you that book that 

 you asked for." It was from the contemplation of such a sentence as 

 this that the Greeks considered the pan- of words as performing the 

 office of joints which connect the two propositions together ; and to 

 distinguish the one article from the other, that which precedes the 

 noun (the) was called the prepositire article, and that which follows it, 

 namely, the relative, the postpotitire article. The qualifying terms are 

 perhaps not very well chosen, inasmuch as the relative clause, fre- 

 quently in the ancient languages, and sometimes even in English, 

 precedes ; but undoubtedly the term article is very expressive of these 

 relative particles, which in all cases, or nearly so, do perform the duty 

 of connecting two propositions together ; and hence we ought not to 

 be surprised that a large proportion of the conjunctions have their 

 origin in the relatives or demonstratives. But the repetition of the 

 defining, demonstrative, or relative particle is no way necessary. 

 Whether we say " I gave you that book " (pointing to it), or, " You 

 asked for a book that (or that book) I gave you," or, lastly, " I gave 

 you that book you asked for," the word that performs in all cases the 

 same duty. The two ideas thus logically connected in the expres- 

 sion " I gave you the book that or which you asked for," are " You 

 askeil for the book : I gave you the book." It is only a luxury in 

 language to vary the forms according to the mere place in a sentence 

 that a word may occupy ; and if, in the more polished forms of the 

 Greek language, we find the demonstrative, the definite article, and the 

 relative distinguished, yet they are all evidently derived from a com- 

 mon parent, TO, and its dialectic varieties. In Homer, the article, 

 so-called, has still the power of a demonstrative ; in Herodotus, the 

 same element performs at times all the three offices. As we descend 

 chronologically we find the tragedians still confounding the diverging 

 forms of the relative and article, and even in certain phrases, retained 

 by the later writers, traces of the same confusion arising from a common 

 origin were yet to be seen. Matthuc in his 'Grammar' has so fully 

 acknowledged this triple power of the Greek pronoun, that he treats of 

 the article under the three heads 1. of the article ; 2. of the article 

 as a pronoun (he means a demonstrative pronoun) ; 3. of the article 

 for the pronoun relative. 



The Latin language had but an imperfect definite article in its pro- 

 nouns, hie, i/le, i ; but besides these we find the relative at times em- 

 ployed where the English idiom at least requires the demonstrative this ; 

 and what is called the conjunction yuml (that), like the corresponding 

 Greek tri, or French rjue, has the foi-m of a relative, and the meaning 

 of a demonstrative. To trace the same analogy in the Teutonic 

 languages, the German der, of which de only is radical, is at once 

 demonstrative, relative, and definite article. So completely does the 

 Qtnnfld agree with the Greek, that, when der threw off much of its 

 demonstrative power to play the part of the mere article, a kind of 

 doubled form, dieser, was adopted for the pure demonstrative, on the 

 same principle of formation as olrros, from os, with the same meaning 

 in Greek. And lastly, the English philologist will find the same three- 

 fold power among the derivatives from the English allied root, the, 

 namely, among the forms tlti, that, then, thim (compare the Latin 

 quum), there, thence, the, &c. The form that is still retained, as was 

 before observed, with the power of the relative; but in the older 

 writers, as Chaucer, there, thence, &c., were freely used, where we now 

 only employ, where, icheure, &e. 



Home Tooke, whose views of etymology were neither extensive nor 

 accurate, has fancied that the English article the is the imperative of an 

 Anglo-Saxon verb Sean, to take. (' Diversions of Purley,' Taylor's 

 edition, ii. 63.) We need not repeat that it is allied to the German 

 der, or rather the Dutch de, for the r is merely the characteristic of a 

 masculine nominative, to the Gothic sa or tha, and through these to 

 the Greek element tO, a form which actually occurs in the English 

 to-iluy (ho-die), for which provincial dialects sometimes substitute 

 ili: i/ni/, thus testifying in favour of the theory ; and no etymology for 

 the English article will be satisfactory which does not equally apply to 

 all these languages. In the same way the definite articles of the 

 modern languages derived from the Latin are all referable to the 

 Latin demonstrative ille, ilia, &c. [RELATIVE; PRONOUN DEMON- 

 STRATIVE.] 



ARTICLES OF FAITH. [CONFESSIONS.] 



ARTICLES OF THE PEACE, a term applied to a recognizance or 

 obligation to the crown, entered on record, and taken in some court by 

 some judicial officer, whereby the parties acknowledge themselves to 

 be indebted to the crown in the sum required, with condition to be 

 void and of none effect if the party shall appear in court on such a day, 

 and in the mean time shall keep the peace. (Blackst., Comm., iv. 

 ch. 18.) 



ARTICLES OF WAR. [MUTINY ACT.] 



ARTICULATION. [VOICE.] 



ARTIFICIAL FLOWERS. Few employments of a mechanical or 



r p 



