ARTOTYRITES. 



ARTS, DEGREES IN. 



690 



In the Vorarlberg (a part of the Austrian dominions) the male in- 

 habitants are accustomed to leave home early in the spring, go to 

 Switzerland and France, exercise the trades of masons and house-builders 

 during the summer, live with the utmost possible frugality, and return 

 to the Vorarlberg in autumn with the savings of their labour. 



The silk-weavers of Lyon have a very strict system of classification. 

 There are small masters, workmen, and apprentices ; besides the 

 capitalist-manufacturers who set all to work. The masters or chefs 

 <f ateliers, are owners of a few looms, and have fixed residences. The 

 workmen, or compaynons, have neither capital, looms, nor houses ; they 

 work the looms belonging to the master, live and board with him, and 

 receive half the money gained by the looms they work the other half 

 going for house-rent, risk, wear and tear of machinery, &c. The 

 apiirtntice are from 15 to 20 years of age ; they are taught by the 

 chefs fate/iers,mth whom and for whom they work. 



ARTOTYRITES. [CoMMUXios.] 



ARTS, DEGREES IN, such as are now given in our universities, 

 appear to have originated with the incorporation of those bodies in the 

 llth and 12th centuries. Previous to this period, the distinctions were 

 for the most part of masters and scholars only, as in our grammar- 

 schools of the present day. 



The term master is believed to be the oldest among those of gradua- 

 tion. Eugenius II. by the 34th canon of a council held at Rome in 

 828, mentions the appointment of magistri and doctores in the same 

 sentence : " ut magistri et doctores constituantur, qui studia literarum, 

 liberaliumque artium, ac sancta habentes dogmata assidue doceant " 

 (that masters and doctors be appointed who may continually teach the 

 knowledge of learning and the liberal arts, and the received opinions 

 In religion). This was confirmed by a decree of Leo IV. in another 

 synod at Rome, in 853. (Muratori, ' Antiq. Ital.' torn. iii. col. 830.) 



Du Pin, ' Nouvelle Bibliotheque des Auteurs Ecclesiastiques,' 4to. 

 Paris, 1700, torn. X. p. 171, states that the academies or universities 

 which were originally established, were in the 13th century reduced to 

 form. That of Paris, which had begun to be formed in the preceding 

 century, had grown famous from the number of its scholars, and for 

 the masters with which it furnished all Europe. In its origin, he adds, 

 it was composed of Artiali, who taught the sciences and philosophy; 

 and of Divines, who made commentaries on Peter Lombard's ' Book of 

 Sentences,' and explained the Holy Scriptures. Mention of these two 

 faculties only occurs in the constitutions made for the university by 

 the Cardinal di S. Ktcfano, legate of Pope Innocent III. in 1215. The 

 whole number of arts was originally seven, and these were distributed 

 into the tririum, comprehending grammar, logic, rhetoric ; and the 

 , comprehending music, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy. 

 Artidoctor and artista are ancient names for masters of arts, mentioned 

 by Du Cange. 



Gregory IX. whose pontificate continued from 1227 to 1241, is said 

 first to have instituted the inferior rank of bockelvri ; whose name was 

 derived from barilla (little staves), either because they were admitted 

 by receiving a little wand, or because as following the title adopted for 

 the novices of the soldiery, who exercised with sticks, in order to learn 

 to fight with arms. The bachelors were exercised in disputations, of 

 which the masters were the moderators. Much upon the etymology of 

 the names of bachelor and master may be seen in Bacmeister's ' Anti- 

 quitatea Rostochienses,' in the third volume of the ' Monumenta Inedita 

 Rerum Germanicarum," fol. Lips. 1743, col. 953. The honours con- 

 ferred upon learned men, in the form of these degrees, greatly increased 

 the number of scholars in all the universities of Europe. For an able 

 sketch of the origin and influence of universities in the middle ages, 

 the reader is referred to the 3rd vol. of Savigny's celebrated work, 

 ' Geschichte des Romischen Rechts in Mitteliilter, c. 21. 



From several passages in Wood's ' History and Antiquities of the 

 University of Oxford, there can be little doubt but that the degrees 

 both of bachelor and master of arts were conferred there in the time 

 of Henry III. and the degree of master of arts probably much earlier. 

 The study of law, both canon and civil, and the institution of the 

 Faculty of Law, in which degrees were given, are said to have come 

 into the university in 1149, under the influence and fostering care of 

 Vacarius. (Gutch's edit, of Wood, vol. i. p. 52.) 



Wood, quoting the commentaries of one Whetley upon Bocthius, 

 written in the time of Edward I., says, " When the said bachelor was 

 created master, the chancellor gave him the badges with very great 

 solemnity, and admitted him into the fraternity with a kiss on his left 

 cheek, using these words, ' En tibi insignia honoris tui, en librum, en 

 cucullum, en pileum, en denique amoris mei pignus, osculum ; in 

 nomine Patris, et Filii, et Spiritus Sancti.' " (Ibid. p. 59.) 



The examinations for the degree of B.A. (bachelor of arts) in Oxford 

 have been remodelled by the Examination Statutes of 1850, by which 

 it has been enacted, that all students shall pass three public trials 

 before proceeding to their B.A. degree ; these are 



I. Responmona, which are holden three times in each year (that is, 

 ,5th of December, Monday after the 4th Sunday in Lent, Thursday 

 after the 1st Sunday after Trinity), and are to be passed in the third 

 to the seventh term inclusive. The subjects of this examination con- 

 nit of one Latin and one Greek author ; Euclid, Books I. and II., or 

 Algebra to Simple Equations inclusive, and Arithmetic as far as the 

 extraction of the square root inclusive, in addition to which a passage 

 of English to be translated into Latin, a paper of Grammatical ques- 



tions, and a paper of Arithmetical or Mathematical questions are set to 

 all the candidates, who are also examined rivd voce. 



II. The First Public Examination under moderators to be passed 

 between the eighth and the twelfth term of standing, taking place 

 twice in the year, and commencing on the 20th of November, and the 

 Wednesday next after the 1st Sunday after Easter ; at this examina- 

 tion honours are awarded both in Classics aud Mathematics. In order 

 to acquire Classical honours the candidates are desired especially to 

 bring up poets and orators ; Homer, Virgil, Demosthenes, and Cicero, 

 being recommended by name. The highest honour cannot be obtained 

 without Logic, which has great weight in the distribution of both 

 honours ; Euclid and Algebra however may be substituted for Logic. 

 Philological and critical questions are proposed, as well as Greek and 

 Latin translations in prose and verse. For those who are not candi- 

 dates for honours (Pass-men), the subjects are Four Gospels in Greek 

 (save in the case of persons not members of the church of England, 

 when some one Greek author is to be substituted), one Greek and one 

 Latin author, of which one must be a poet, the other an orator;' in 

 addition to which a piece of English to be translated into Latin, a 

 paper of Grammatical questions, and a paper of Mathematical or Logical 

 questions are set to all the candidates. 



III. The Public Examination (held twice in the year, commencing 

 on the Thursday after the 2nd Sunday after Easter, and the 24th of 

 October), at which the candidates must pass in two schools at least 

 (though not necessarily in the same Term), as early as the thirteenth, 

 and for honours as late as the eighteenth term of standing. Prior to 

 the examination the candidates must present a certificate from a 

 Professor, or Public Reader, showing that they have attended two 

 courses of public lectures. 



There are four schools, the first of which, that of ' Liter* Humani- 

 ores,' has to be passed first, aud by all. 



Candidates for honours may add to the subjects in Divinity pre- 

 scribed for the pass examination, one or more of the apostolical 

 Epistles and Ecclesiastical History. They have to take up the Greek 

 and Latin languages, Greek and Roman history, Chronology, Geogra- 

 phy, Antiquities, Rhetoric, and Poetic, Moral, and Political Philosophy. 

 Logic, which has great weight in the distribution of honours, must be 

 tendered by all who seek to obtain a first or second class. Those who 

 are not candidates for honours are expected to take up the Four 

 Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles in Greek, Sacred History, the 

 Evidences, and the Thirty-nine Articles, with Scripture proofs, unless 

 they are not members of the Church of England, when an equivalent 

 in Greek or Latin, or some one Greek or Latin author is required. 

 One philosopher and one historian, Greek or Latin (no translations 

 into Latin are set). 



The second school is that of Mathematics ; the minimum for which 

 is the first six books of Euclid, or the first part of algebra : the sub- 

 jects for honours being mixed as well as pure mathematics. 



The third school is that of Natural Science, where the minimum 

 consists of an acquaintance with the 'principles of two out of these 

 three branches of natural science, Mechanical Philosophy, Chemistry, 

 and Physiology, and with some one branch of science which falls under 

 mechanical philosophy. Candidates for honours are expected to show 

 au acquaintance with the principles of the three branches of natural 

 science named above, and of some one of the physical sciences falling 

 iinder the above-named branches of natural science. 



In the fourth school, that of Law and Modern History, the mini- 

 mum consists of the History of England from the Conquest to the 

 Accession of Henry VIII., with Blackstone on Real Property ; or from 

 the Accession of Henry VIII. to that of Queen Anne, with Blackstoue 

 on Personal Property. Justinian's Institutes may be substituted for 

 Blackstone. For honours, the candidates have to present, in addi- 

 tion to the above, in Law, the first and second volumes of Stephen's 

 Commentaries (substituting for these, Justinian's Institutes, and Smith 

 on Contracts) ; and Wheaton on International Law, or Grotius, Books 

 I. and II.; and Modern History down to 1789. Adam Smith on the 

 Wealth of Nations may also be offered. 



After the candidates have been examined, the names of those who 

 have honourably distinguished themselves in the first and second 

 public examinations are distributed, in alphabetical order, into three 

 classes, together with the names of their colleges, under the two 

 divisions of In Schula, Litt. Gr. et Lai., and In Schota Disc. Math. Those 

 who distinguish themselves in the second public examination are 

 arranged alphabetically in four classes, with the names of their colleges, 

 under these four divisions : In Literis Humaniaribus ; In Sciential Math. 

 ctPhys.; In Scientia Naturali ; In Jurisprudentia et Hist. Mod. A fifth 

 class, giving the numbers without the names, is added to each of these 

 divisions. Printed copies of the schedule containing these classes are 

 sent to the chancellor, to the vice-chancellor, to the heads of houses, to 

 the proctors, and to the refectory and common room of each college 

 aud hall. 



Sixteen terms are required for the degree of bachelor of arts iu 

 Oxford from all except the sons, and eldest sons of the eldest sons, of 

 English, Scotch, and Irish peers, and of peeresses in their own right, 

 as well as baronets, and the eldest sons of baronets and knights, when 

 matriculated as such, and not on the foundation of any college ; all 

 such persons are allowed to be candidates for the degree after having 

 completed two years' residence. But of these sixteen terms, residence 



