esi 



BERZELIUS, JONS JACOB. 



BESSEL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM. 



possible to control the results of analyses even to foresee a great 

 number of combinations then unknown and to carry into every 

 operation an accuracy previously thought altogether unattainable." 



By his elaborate examination, beginning with the salts and going 

 through the whole rauge of elements, including the products of organ- 

 ised existence, Berzelius anticipated Dalton in some of his conclusions, 

 and afterwards found a perfect agreement between his results and those 

 of the Manchester philosopher. His knowledge of the laws of definite 

 combinations enabled him to elucidate the nature of minerals, and to 

 show at the same time, by the composition of the minerals, the univer- 

 sality of the laws. He helped indeed to bring the atomic theory to 

 perfection, and to introduce it into science. He framed moreover an 

 electro-chemical theory, and published ' Lectures on Animal Chemistry,' 

 a work filled with rare proofs of original research and clear perceptions 

 011 a branch of science then least understood. On the publication of 

 these lectures the Swedish government made him a grant of two 

 hundred dollars a year, to enable him the better to prosecute his 

 labours. In 1807 he joined with seven leading members of the pro- 

 feasion in establishing the Medical Society of Sweden, now a flourishing 

 institution; and in the following year he was admitted a member of 

 the Koyal Academy of Sciences of Stockholm. In 1810, being then 

 at the age of thirty-one, he was elected President of the Academy 

 a striking proof of the estimation in which he was held by his 

 colleagues. 



Berzelius visited England in 1312, and while here learned how 

 prelections could be made really interesting as well as instructive by 

 attending Dr. Marcet's lectures at Guy's Hospital. In conjunction with 

 Dr. Marcet he wrote a paper entitled ' Experiments on the Alcohol of 

 Sulphur, or Sulphuret of Carbon,' which was published in the ' Philo- 

 sophical Transactions' for 1813; and in the same year he was elected 

 a foreign member of the Royal Society. 



Ou his return to Stockholm Berzelius at once changed his .style of 

 lecturing, and with the happiest results. His dry readings became 

 living discourses, illustrated by experiments, of which he greatly 

 multiplied the number suitable for public exhibition by his quick 

 imagination. Men whose names have since become famous attended 

 his teachings. In 1815 he was made Chevalier, and afterwards Com- 

 mander of the order of Wasa; and in 1818 he was chosen perpetual 

 Secretary of the Academy, which distinguished post he held for the 

 rest of his life. In the same year, at the coronation of Charles John, 

 he was ennobled with permission, contrary to custom, to retain his 

 name. In 1821, at the instance of the Academy, he commenced that 

 aeries of annual reports on the progress of chemistry and physics, 

 which, while contributing materially to the advancement of those 

 sciences, confirmed and height -ned his own reputation. Speculative 

 philosophers charged him with jealousy and envy, because of his 

 intolerance of unsubstantial theories. No theory was ever accepted 

 or started by him that was not supported by a solid basis of facts. 

 If " too cautious," as was often saiJ, he studied but the interests of 

 science ; and if jealous, it was for chemistry, and not for himself. 

 Regarding himself as a vidette ever on duty, he warned and alirmed 

 whenever the occasion required, and confident in integrity, delivered 

 his opinion) with unqualified freedom. So faithful a censor will not 

 be easily replaced. 



In the hands of Berzelius the blowpipe became a most important 

 instrument in the analysis of inorganic substances. A translation of 

 IIH tre.itise on the subject appeared in English in 1822 'On the 

 Use of the Blowpipe in Chemical Analysis, ami the examination of 

 Mineral.'.' There was scarcely a question that he did not bring to 

 the test of experiment, and reduce to ita proper place in science, as 

 may be seen in his great work ' Lebrbuch der Chemie,' which has gone 

 through five editions, and as many translations. The last was published 

 at Paris in six volumes octavo in 1845-50. 



In 1 832 Berzelius resigned the professorship which he had held for 

 twenty-six years ; but still kept on with his scientific labours. He 

 married about this time, and on the day of his wedding the king 

 wrote to confer on him the dignity of ' Freiherr,' or Baron, observing 

 that, " Sweden and the world were the debtors of a man whose entire 

 life had been devoted to works as useful to all, as they were glorious 

 to his native country." Subsequently he had the further honour of 

 receiving the Grand Cross of the Royal Swedish order of the Polar 

 Star. The directors of the Swedish iron-works awarded him a pension 

 in acknowledgment of his eminent services to their branch of industry. 

 And in 1836 the Royal Society of London showed their sense of his 

 merits by giving him their Copley Medal. 



So the life of Berzelius flowed on in a tranquil current. He enjoyed 

 all the honours his native land could give, had the satisfaction of 

 seeing his name enrolled among the members of nearly all the scientific 

 societies of the world, more than 100, and of knowing that foreign 

 governments recognised his worth. As he approached the age of fifty 

 his sight began to fail, and his 'memory to lose somewhat of its power. 

 Infirmities now increased on the philosopher, who.-e health had never 

 been robust. He was seized with paralysis of the lower extremities; 

 but retained the serenity of his mind till death approaching, as one 

 has said, " with alow steps, as ft messenger who regretted his errand," 

 closed hU career on the 1st of August, 1848. His death was felt as a 

 national calamity, and the scientific societies of his native laud wore 

 mourning for two months in respect for his memory. 



BESSA'RION, JOHN, was born at Trebizond, on the south-east 

 coast of the Euxiue, in 1389, or, according to Bandini, who has written 

 his life (4to,Rome, 1777), in 1395. Having removed to Constantinople he 

 devoted himself to study under George Chrysococces and other eminent 

 teachers, and while yet quite young entered the strict monastic order 

 of St. Kisil. He passed twenty-one years in a monastery in the 

 Peloponnesus, where he studied under the philosopher George Gemistus 

 Pletho, from whom he acquired that admiration for Plato which he 

 retained to the end of his life. In 1438 was held the council of 

 Ferrara, for the purpose of effecting a union between the Greek and 

 Latin churches, and so great was the reputation of Bessarion for 

 learning and talent, that he was selected by the emperor John 

 Palseologus to accompany him as one of the conductors of the con- 

 ference on the part of the Greeks, and before ho set out was raised to 

 the dignity of archbishop of Nicaea. Both at Ferrara and after the 

 council had, ou account of the plague, been removed to Florence, 

 Bessarion earnestly exerted himself in promoting the union, which was 

 agreed to in the year 1439. After the close of the council he returned 

 to Constantinople, but finding himself an object of popular enmity on 

 account of his conduct at Ferrara aud Florence, and having in the end 

 of the same year been raised to the cardinalate by Eugenius IV., he 

 settled in Italy. Here he devoted himself to study, the patronage of 

 learned men, and the collecting of books and manuscripts, which he 

 afterwards, in the year 146S, presented to the Venetian senate, and 

 which formed the basis of the celebrated library of St. Mark. Pope 

 Nicholas V. conferred on him the archbishopric of Siponto. In 1449 

 that pontiff created him cardinal bishop of Sabiua, and in the same 

 year translated him to the see of Tuseuluin or Fraacati. In 1463 

 Pius II. conferred on him the empty title of Patriarch of Constanti- 

 nople. 



In the reign of Nicholas V. Bessariou held for five years the office 

 of legate at Bologna, the duties of which he discharged with much 

 applause. He was also employed on several embassies, the last of 

 which, undertaken for the purpose of reconciling Louis XI. of France 

 and the Duke of Burgundy, is said to have occasioned his death 

 through vexation at the insulting behaviour of the King of France. 

 Ou his way back to Rome he died at Ravenna in 1172. His works 

 on various subjects are numerous; some of them have been published, 

 others exist only in manuscript. Tue most celebrated are his Latin 

 translation of tue ' Memorabilia of Xenophou ; ' that of the * Meta- 

 physics of Aristotle ; ' and his treatise ' Contra Calumniatorem Pla- 

 tonis,' first published in 1469. This is a controversial tract written 

 against George of Trebizond, who had endeavoured to exalt Aristotle 

 by decrying Plato. 



BESSEL, F1UEDR1CH WILHELJI, was born at Miuden on the 

 22ud of July 1784. His father was a civil officer (justizrath) under 

 the Prussian government; his mother a clergyman's daughter; and 

 there being a family of nine children to rear on but narrow means, 

 the future astronomer received only an ordinary education. Among 

 his earliest manifestations was a dislike of classical literature, and a 

 love for arithmetic. His quickness in calculation led to his being 

 articled at the age of fifteen as clerk in a mercantile house at Bremen. 

 Here he showed himself diligent to fulfil the* duty that lay imme- 

 diately before him, whatever it might be ; and this remained his 

 especial characteristic. The hope of being offered the post of suj or- 

 cargo on a foreign voyage was then his stimulus ; and to qualify 

 himself for the responsible office he began to study French and 

 Spanish, and Hamilton Moore's old work on navigation. Dissatisfied 

 with the rules and processes laid down for nautical reckoning, he 

 sought for better information in a popular treatise on astronomy, and 

 finding therein the means for overcoming his difficulties, he pursued 

 the study with eagerness, till ignorance of mathematics brought him 

 to a stand. Regarding the check as a call for greater exertions, he 

 betook himself to a course of mathematical reading, and so interested 

 did he become in this new study, that all his spare hours, chiefly in 

 the night, were devoted to it There was no longer the same charm in 

 commercial pursuits, or in the hope of a voyage. And now appeared 

 a trait that marked his character through life turning theory or 

 knowledge to positive and practical uses. With a rude wooden 

 sextant, made by a carpenter, and a common clock, he began to make 

 time-observations ; and having observed the occultation of a star by 

 the moon, he got therefrom, to his great joy, an approximate latitude 

 of Bremen. This was one of the successes that gladden the heart of 

 the student, repay his toil, and animate him to renewed exertions. 



From this time his progress in astronomical studies was surprisingly 

 rapid. While still a clerk in a oouuting-house, he had formed designs 

 of original inquiry, such as are expected only from veterans of science. 

 Harriott's and Torporley's rough observations of the comet of 1607 

 had been found by Baron Zach, while searching the collection of 

 Harriott's papers in the possession of the Earl of Egremout, and 

 these being the first instrumental observations of that comet since 

 known as Halley's their reduction was a desideratum of first-rate 

 importance. Bessel, when in his 20th year, undertook the task, and 

 executed it in to masterly a manner that Olbers, to whom he com- 

 municated the results, foreseeing his future eminence, praised him in 

 the warmest terms, and sought to enlist him in tho astronomical 

 ranks. The reductions Bessel's first published work appeared in 

 Zach's ' Monatliche Correspondeoz,' and was speedily followed by a 



