CARMAONOLA. FRMfCHBCO BU880NR DI. 



CARNOT, LAZARE NICHOLAS MAROITER1TE. 



that later sod ox** pcnnHir, and to many disagreeable form, which 

 k_ v .!.., -d UM Carrjflesc.* 



a. FRANCESCO BUSSO'NE DI, count of Castel- 

 s horn at Oaratagaola, a town of the province of Turin in 



. about the year 13*0. of humble parents. Early in life 



b. oatfcted into UM troop of Faetoo Cane, a celebrated Condottiere of 

 his time, who was to the sarvio* of the Visoonti. duke* of Milan. Aa 

 be rose to rank be took UM name of Carmagnola, from the place of 

 hi* birth. After UM death of Faetoo, Filippo Maria Visoonti made 

 CwoMgnoU hi* general to-chief, at a reward for bis bravery and 

 servkca. Camagnnls was chieSy instrumental to placing Filippo 

 Maria on UM ducal throne of Milan, and he afterward* added to his 

 1 | Tm f rt u. Pfannaa, Breccia, Bergamo, and other towns. Filippo 

 Maria created him Count of CasUtonovo, gave him in marriage bis 

 relative Antoniette Yiseonti. and scot him to Genoa as governor. I 

 i'lhppo Maria, who was of a dark suspicious temper, having 

 Hrtssnd to UM unfavourable reports of some courtier* around him, 



ordered f^rsaatnoh U be deprived of his military command, upon 

 which the Utter repaired to the duke to remonstrate with him ; but 

 being denied an audience, be rode off with a few trusty companions, 

 left the territory of Milan, and after some wanderings repaired to 

 Trevuo, to the Venetian territory, where the duke sent an assassin to 

 murder him. but the plot failed. He then went to Venice, where he 

 arrived to February 1425. 



The Venetian senate having declared war against the duke, in 

 January H2,*ppototd CarmagnoU their capUin-general Carmagnola 

 ilcf*cl*il UM duke's troops and took from him the province of Breccia, 

 which was from that time incorporated with the Venetian state. In 

 1427 be defeated again, near Maclodio. the duke'* troops, which were 

 led by Sforxa, Pergola. Piootoino, and Torello, all celebrated Coudottieri 

 of that time. After the battle, dwpite the remonstrances of the 

 Venetian commissioners. CarmagnoU permitted his soldiers, who were 

 chiefly mercenaries, to liberate all their prisoner*, according to the 

 custom then prevalent among the Italian Condottieri ; the reason of 

 which was, that as those troops fought merely for pay, they did not 

 wish utterly to destroy their antagonist*, for fear that the war should 

 come to an end too soon* 



In 142s peace was made between Venice and the duke, but to 1431 

 war broke out again, and Carmagnola, retaining the command of the 

 Venetian army, attacked the castle of Sonctoo, but failed after a con- 

 siderable loam. Shortly after, in July of the same year, the duke's 

 flotilla on the Po defeated that of Venice, to sight of CarmagnoU s 

 camp, who was not to time to support it. That commander was 

 accused of neglect and even suspected of treachery. Tho senate wrote 

 hiaa a letter of reproof, but continued him to command. In the 

 following October Carmagnola attempted to surprise Cremona ; part 

 of hie men entered the town, but the citizens ruing to a mass, drove 

 out the aerailanU. This failure increased tho suspicious and fear* of 

 the Venetian senators, who determined to deprive CarmagnoU of his 

 cummand, but fearing to attempt it while he was in the midst of his 

 soldier*, by whom be was beloved, they invited him by courteous 

 letters to repair to Venice to order that they might consult with him 

 on the peace to be made with the duke. Carmagnola went to Venice, 

 where be was received with marked distinction, and was led imme- 

 diately to the ducal palace. Being introduced tote the nail of the 

 Council of Ten, be was all at once charged with treason, arrested, 

 taken to the adjototog prison, examined secretly, put to the torture, 

 and condemned to death. On the fith of May 1482 be was led out, 

 with his month gagged, to the Pianette of Su Mark, and there 

 beheaded between tee two pillars. His property was confiscated to 

 the state. Concerning the guilt or innocence of this celebrated com- 

 mander much diversity of opinion prevails. Manxoni, to his ' Notizie 

 ftaorich*,- which accompany bis drama ' It Conte di Carmagnola,' has 

 fully examined the qucotion and referred to the authorities on both 

 stdea. Of the treacherous conduct of UM Venetian senators there can 

 be no question, 



< AKK EVADES, a native of Cyrsac to Africa, was the founder of 

 the school of philosophy called the New Academy. The precise date 

 of hie birth is difficult to ascertain : it was probably about B.C. 214. 

 ;ar to have received bis first instruction to philosophy from 

 Dligisn the Stoic, and hence the joke recorded by Cicero ('Acad. 

 Qwest,' hr. SO): be onetimes said, - If I have argued correctly, I am 

 satis*. .1 ; If badly. Diogenes shall give back his mine." He afterwards 

 attended the lecture, of Egestous, master of the academy, and sue- 

 celled him to the chair. In this situation he attained great eminence, 

 and so high was the estimation to which be was held that (Cicero, 

 Dc Oral,' U. 7 ; ' AuU OelL,' vii 14) be was (elected with two others, 

 rHlsJsnu the Stoic, and Critolaus the Peripatetic, to go on an embassy 

 from Athens to Rome (ac. 154.) Cicero ('Dc Fin.,' iil 12) praise* 

 him far hi* great eloquence, which Aulus Gellius (vii. 14) describes*. 

 iii>iul and rapid, dutrrtog to this respect from the correct and 

 elegant style of Diogcoec and the quiet and chaste style of Critolaus. 

 Cicero ( be Oral,' U. M) says that he never defended a point which 

 be did not prove, or opposed an argument which he did not overthrow. 

 Even other philosopher, and orator*, it is said, oonstsntly resorted to 

 hi* school. (INcg. Uert 'Life of Cam.') Carncedse not tmfro- 

 ouesrtly sacrificed persona] comfort and cUanltoees to ardour in hi* 

 favourite pursuits; be sometimes forgo* to take his meals, and often 



grudged the time necessary for combing his hair, ftc. Before disputing, 

 as he frequently did, with Chrysippus the Stoic, he was accustomed 

 to brace the powers of his mind by the exhibition of hellebore. 

 ('Valer. Max.,' viii. 7.) He died at the age of ninety, according to 

 Cicero (' Acad. Qwest,' iv. 6) and Valerius Maximum (viii. 7.) 



The doctrines of Carneades appear to have differed little from those 

 of Arcesilaiis and the other philosophers of the Middle Academy. 

 The difference consisted more perhaps in the mode of statement than 

 in the tenets themselves. Clitomachus, who succeeded Carneades, 

 owned that he was never able to ascertain what the precise doctrines 

 of his predecessor were. Carneades maintained that as the senses and 

 understanding frequently deceive us, nothing which we learn by 

 meant of them can be certain ; that the highest point we can attain is 

 great probability, and that of probability there are several degrees. 

 He considered that all the knowledge which the human mind was 

 capable of gaining ought not to be called knowledge but opinion, as 

 there was no sure test of truth. Arcesilaus appears to have main- 

 tained the same tenets, but to have asserted them in a broader and 

 more offensive manner. He was chiefly employed in destroying tho 

 systems of others by means of his doctrine of uncertainty, ami lu> 

 almost entirely disregarded the application of his principles in tin- 

 form of ethics; while Carneades, on the other hand, devoted himself 

 partly to their practical use to the affairs of life. The constructive 

 method of Carneades preserved him from the odium and suspicion 

 which the destructive and aggressive method had brought upon 

 Arcesilaiis. [ARCESILAUS.] 



CARNEGIE, SIR ROBERT, of Kinnaird, son of John de Carnegr, 

 who was killed at the battle of Flodden, was sometime chamberlain of 

 Arbroath, and having attached himself to tho regent Arran, was on 

 July 4th 1547 appointed a lord of session. The following year he was 

 sent to England to treat for the ransom of the Earl of Huntly, Chan- 

 cellor of Scotland, who had been taken prisoner at the battle of Pinkie. 

 He was soon afterwards despatched on a mission to the court of 

 France ; and when there was requested by King Henri II. to use his 

 influence with Arran for the resignation of the regency in favour of 

 the queen dowager, which was effected. In 1551 we find him clerk to 

 the treasurer of Scotland, and one of the commissioners named to 

 conclude a peace with England ; and in 1554 and 1556 be was again 

 employed in a like capacity. At the breaking out of the Reformation 

 he at first took part with the queen regent, and was employed by her 

 in negociating with the lords of the congregation ; but afterwards ho 

 joined the latter, and was despatched by them to the courts of England 

 and France to explain their intentions. He died on the 5th of July, 

 1566. He was in all likelihood the author of the work on Soots law, 

 which is cited in Balfour's ' Practicks ' by tho quaint title of ' Lib. 

 Carneg.,' or ' Carnegie's Book.' 



CARNOT, LAZARE NICHOLAS MARGUERITE, was born of 

 respectable ancestry at Nolay, in Burgundy, on the 13th of May 1753. 

 He entered the army to the corps of engineers to 1771, and at tho 

 time the revolution began was known as a respectable and well- 

 informed officer, who had gained tho prize of the Academy of Dijon 

 for an elope of Vauban, and had refused Urge offers to enter the 

 service of Frederick of Prussia, In 1791 he was elected to represent 

 the Pas da Calais in the legislative assembly, and became a member of 

 the military committee. Be was one of those who voted the death of 

 the ex-king. In 1793 he became a member of the committee of public 

 safety. His name does not directly appear as an advocate of, or an 

 agent to, any of the excesses of the violent republicans ; but he stood 

 high to place during those times of fury. So far as his acts are evi- 

 dence, his attention was entirely directed to tho affairs of bis profession ; 

 he was to truth the war-minister of the committee. The most glorious 

 period (in a military sense) of the republic was that in which he 

 directed the railing of all the materiel of the army, and it wan after- 

 wards said of him that he had "organise* la victoire." In 17!':: 1, 

 joined tho army of the north with other deputies ; the inefficiency of 

 another general called him into action, and he was mainly instrumental 

 in gaining the victory of Watiguwa, In 1795 he was elected for four- 

 teen different places, but was shortly afterwords proscribed, and sought 

 refuge in Germany. He was recalled by the First Consul, and wai 

 made minister of war. This post he lost when, he voted against tho 

 consulate for life, and at the same time all the other military situa- 

 tions which he held. But after the Russian campaign, when I 

 was on the eve of invasion, he offered his services to Napoleon 

 received the command of Antwerp, which he held until the abilirutioii 

 of 1814. When Napoleon returned from Elba, he wished to return 

 to Antwerp, but the emperor is said to have told him that a maeliim- 

 would answer the purpose there : he was again appointed minister of 

 war. After the restoration he retired fin-t to Warsaw, and then to 

 Magdeburg, where he died on the 2nd of August, 1823. He was 

 twice a member of tho Institute, and twice expelled ; the first time 

 by the Directory, and afterwards on the restoration of 1814. 



He published in 1786 an ' Rssai sur IPS Machines en general,' and in 

 1808 his work 'Da la Defense des Places Fortes.' The latter i- a 

 remonstrance to the officers of the army upon the disposition wlm-h 

 existed to consider a place untenable after the enemy had gained tin' 

 glacis. He endeavours to show that the most serious part of an 

 officer's duty only begins when the body of the place is attacked, an-i 

 brings a large number of illustrations from ancient and modern 



